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According to the definition, as well as CBD and terminologies, they are alien species, as they are non-native non-indigenous to the Mediterranean Sea, and they are outside their normal area of distribution which is the Indo-Pacific region. Margrave Frederick successfully kept his principality out of the wars being waged by his brother-in-law, Frederick the Great, at this time, and, as a result, brought a time of peace to the Frankish kingdom. Only works by are put on. In the a line joining the north extreme of Cape Paci 15°42'E with Cape Peloro, the east extreme of the Island of.
The , which are hyper-saline natural lakes that form part of the canal, blocked the migration of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean for many decades, but as the salinity of the lakes gradually equalised with that of the Red Sea, the barrier to migration was removed, and plants and animals from the Red Sea have begun to colonise the Eastern Mediterranean. Archived from on 9 April 2009.
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For other uses, see. The Mediterranean Sea is a connected to the , surrounded by the and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by and , on the south by and on the east by the. Although the sea is sometimes considered a part of the Atlantic Ocean, it is usually identified as a separate body of water. Geological evidence indicates that around 5. The Strait of Gibraltar is a narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates and Spain in Europe from in Africa. In , it is sometimes called the Eurafrican Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it from elsewhere. The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m 4,900 ft and the deepest recorded point is 5,267 m 17,280 ft in the in the. The sea is bordered on the north by , the east by , and in the south by. It is located between latitudes and and longitudes and. Its west-east length, from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Gulf of Iskenderun, on the southwestern coast of Turkey, is approximately 4,000 km 2,500 miles. The Mediterranean Sea, including the connected by the to the , has a surface area of approximately 2,510,000 square km 970,000 square miles. The sea was an important route for and travellers of ancient times that allowed for trade and cultural exchange between emergent peoples of the region. The is crucial to understanding the origins and development of many modern societies. The countries surrounding the Mediterranean in clockwise order are , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and ; and are island countries in the sea. In addition, the and the of and have coastlines on the sea. With its highly indented coastline and large number of islands, Greece has the longest Mediterranean coastline. The Ancient Greeks called the Mediterranean simply η θάλασσα 'the Sea' or sometimes η μεγάλη θάλασσα 'the Great Sea', η ημέτερα θάλασσα 'Our Sea', or η θάλασσα η καθ'εμάς 'the sea around us'. The Romans called it Mare Magnum 'Great Sea' or Mare Internum 'Internal Sea' and, starting with the , 'Our Sea'. The term Mare Mediterrāneum appears later: apparently used it in the 3rd century, but the earliest extant witness to it is in the 6th century, in. It means 'in the middle of land, inland' in , a compound of medius 'middle', terra 'land, earth' and -āneus 'having the nature of'. The Latin word is a of Greek μεσόγαιος 'inland', from μέσος 'in the middle' and γήϊος 'of the earth' from γῆ 'land, earth'. The original meaning may have been 'the sea in the middle of the earth', rather than 'the sea enclosed by land'. In , it is called HaYam HaTikhon הַיָּם הַתִּיכוֹן 'the Middle Sea'. In Islamic and older Arabic literature, it was Baḥr al-Rūm ī بحر الروم or بحر الرومي} 'the Sea of the Romans' or 'the Roman Sea'. At first, that name referred to only the Eastern Mediterranean, but it was later extended to the whole Mediterranean. Other Arabic names were Baḥr al-šām ī يبحر الشرومام 'the Sea of Syria' and Baḥr al-Maghrib بحرالمغرب 'the Sea of the West'. The origin of the name is not clear, as it is not known in earlier Greek, Byzantine or Islamic sources. It may be to contrast with the. In Persian, the name was translated as Baḥr-i Safīd, which was also used in later. It is probably the origin of the colloquial Greek Άσπρη Θάλασσα. This would explain both the Turkish Akdeniz White Sea and the Arab nomenclature described above. The at its farthest extent in AD 117 Several ancient civilizations were located around the Mediterranean shores and were greatly influenced by their proximity to the sea. It provided routes for trade, colonization, and war, as well as food from fishing and the gathering of other seafood for numerous communities throughout the ages. Due to the shared climate, geology, and access to the sea, cultures centered on the Mediterranean tended to have some extent of intertwined culture and history. Two of the most notable Mediterranean civilizations in were the and the , both of which extensively colonized the coastlines of the Mediterranean. For the next 400 years, the Roman Empire completely controlled the Mediterranean Sea and virtually all its coastal regions from Gibraltar to the. Darius's canal was wide enough for two to pass each other with oars extended, and required four days to traverse. Middle Ages and empires The , 1571, ended in victory for the European against the Ottoman Turks. The collapsed around AD 476. Temporarily the east was again dominant as Roman power lived on in the formed in the 4th century from the eastern half of the. Another power arose in the 7th century, and with it the religion of , which soon swept across from the east; at its greatest extent, the controlled 75% of the Mediterranean region and left a lasting footprint on its eastern and southern shores. Europe started to revive, however, as more organised and centralised states began to form in the later after the. The by the Anglo-Dutch fleet in support of an ultimatum to release European slaves, August 1816 power based in Anatolia continued to grow, and in 1453 extinguished the Byzantine Empire with the. Ottomans gained control of much of the sea in the 16th century and maintained naval bases in 1543-1544 , Algeria and Tunisia. The 1560 marked the apex of Ottoman naval domination in the Mediterranean. As the naval prowess of the European powers increased, they confronted Ottoman expansion in the region when the 1571 checked the power of the. This was the last naval battle to be fought primarily between. The of preyed on Christian shipping and coastlines in the Western Mediterranean Sea. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th centuries, pirates captured 1 million to 1. The development of oceanic shipping began to affect the entire Mediterranean. Once, most trade between Western Europe and the East had passed through the region, but after the 1490s the development of a sea route to the Indian Ocean allowed the importation of Asian and other goods through the Atlantic ports of western Europe. In 2015, more than one million migrants crossed the Mediterranean Sea into Europe. Italy was particularly affected by the. Since 2013, over 700,000 migrants have landed in Italy, mainly sub-Saharan Africans. The Sea of Marmara is often considered a part of the Mediterranean Sea, whereas the Black Sea is generally not. The 163 km 101 mi long artificial in the southeast connects the Mediterranean Sea to the. Large islands in the Mediterranean include , , , , , , , , , , and in the ; , , , , , , and in the central Mediterranean; , , and the : , , and in the Western Mediterranean. The typical has hot, humid, and dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Crops of the region include , , , , and. In the a line joining the north extreme of Cape Paci 15°42'E with Cape Peloro, the east extreme of the Island of. The north coast of Sicily. Oceanography Predominant surface currents for June Being nearly landlocked affects conditions in the Mediterranean Sea: for instance, are very limited as a result of the narrow connection with the Atlantic Ocean. The Mediterranean is characterised and immediately recognised by its deep blue colour. Evaporation is especially high in its eastern half, causing the water level to decrease and to increase eastward. The salinity at 5 m depth is 3. The pushes relatively cool, low-salinity water from the Atlantic across the basin; it warms and becomes saltier as it travels east, then sinks in the region of the and circulates westward, to spill over the. Thus, seawater flow is eastward in the Strait's surface waters, and westward below; once in the Atlantic, this chemically distinct Mediterranean Intermediate Water can persist thousands of kilometres away from its source. The temperature of the water in the deepest part of the Mediterranean Sea is 13. Several other territories also border the Mediterranean Sea from west to east : The of , the Spanish autonomous cities of and and , the on Cyprus, and the Palestinian. For a more comprehensive list, see. Major cities municipalities with populations larger than 200,000 people bordering the Mediterranean Sea are: Country Cities Algeria , , Egypt , , France , Greece , , , Israel , , , , Italy , , , , , , , , , Lebanon , Libya , , , , , Morocco , Palestine , Spain , , , , , ,. Other features , Albania is situated on an open sea gulf of the in the central Mediterranean. The of the Mediterranean Sea is complex. Underlain by , the sea basin was once thought to be a tectonic remnant of the ancient ; it is now known to be a structurally younger basin, called the , which was first formed by the convergence of the and during the Late and Early. Because it is a near-landlocked body of water in a normally dry climate, the Mediterranean is subject to intensive evaporation and the precipitation of. The started about six million years ago mya when the Mediterranean became landlocked, and then essentially dried up. There are salt deposits accumulated on the bottom of the basin of more than a million cubic kilometres—in some places more than three kilometres thick. Scientists estimate that the sea was last filled about 5. Water poured in from the Atlantic Ocean through a newly breached gateway now called the at an estimated rate of about three orders of magnitude one thousand times larger than the current flow of the. The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m 4,900 ft and the deepest recorded point is 5,267 m 17,280 ft in the in the. The coastline extends for 46,000 km 29,000 mi. A shallow submarine ridge the between the island of and the coast of divides the sea in two main subregions: the Western Mediterranean, with an area of about 850 thousand km 2 330 thousand mi 2 ; and the Eastern Mediterranean, of about 1. A characteristic of the coastal Mediterranean are submarine or vruljas, which discharge pressurised groundwater into the coastal seawater from below the surface; the discharge water is usually fresh, and sometimes may be thermal. Tectonics and paleoenvironmental analysis Animation: Messinian salinity crisis The Mediterranean basin and sea system was established by the ancient African-Arabian continent colliding with the continent. As Africa-Arabia drifted northward, it closed over the ancient which had earlier separated the two supercontinents and. At about that time in the middle period a much smaller sea basin, dubbed the , was formed shortly before the Tethys Ocean closed at its western Arabian end. The broad line of collisions pushed up a very long system of mountains from the in Spain to the in Iran in an episode of mountain-building tectonics known as the. The Neotethys grew larger during the episodes of collisions and associated foldings and subductions that occurred during the and epochs 34 to 5. Accordingly, the Mediterranean consists of several stretched plates in subduction which are the foundation of the Eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea. Various zones of subduction harbour and form the and most majestic oceanic ridges, east of the and south of the. The runs East of the Mediterranean Sea South-East across the in-between of and the into the. Nevertheless, while man-made geopolitical turmoil and chaos have governed the coastlines of many various Mediterranean nations throughout the courses of , , and , the status of nations bordering the Mediterranean Sea will find sharing the same geological concerns and fate. Messinian salinity crisis During and times, as the northwest corner of Africa converged on Iberia, it lifted the Betic-Rif across southern Iberia and northwest Africa. There the development of the intramontane Betic and Rif basins led to creating two roughly-parallel marine gateways between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Dubbed the and , they progressively closed during middle and late Miocene times; perhaps several times. The time of beginning of the MSC was recently estimated astronomically at 5. After the initial drawdown and re-flooding there followed more episodes—the total number is debated—of sea drawdowns and re-floodings for the duration of the MSC. It ended when the Atlantic Ocean last re-flooded the basin—creating the and causing the —at the end of the Miocene 5. Some research has suggested that a desiccation-flooding-desiccation cycle may have repeated several times, which could explain several events of large amounts of salt deposition. Recent studies, however, show that repeated desiccation and re-flooding is unlikely from a point of view. Desiccation and exchanges of flora and fauna The present-day Atlantic gateway, i. As mentioned, two other gateways preceded Gibraltar: the across southern Spain and the across northern Morocco. The indicates a typical extinction and replacement of mammal species in Europe during Tortonian times following climatic upheaval and overland migrations of new species; see Animation: Messinian salinity crisis and mammal migrations , at right. The near-completely enclosed configuration of the Mediterranean basin has enabled the oceanic gateways to dominate seawater circulation and the environmental evolution of the sea and basin. Circulation patterns are also affected by several other factors—including climate, bathymetry, and water chemistry and temperature—which are interactive and can induce precipitation of. Deposits of evaporites accumulated earlier in the nearby during the , and the adjacent during the , and in the whole Mediterranean basin during the MSC and the age. Today, evaporation of surface seawater output is more than the supply input of fresh water by precipitation and coastal drainage systems, causing the salinity of the Mediterranean to be much higher than that of the Atlantic—so much so that the saltier Mediterranean waters sink below the waters incoming from the Atlantic, causing a two-layer flow across the : that is, an outflow of warm saline Mediterranean water, counterbalanced by an inflow surface current of less saline cold oceanic water from the Atlantic. Herman Sörgel's project proposal in the 1920s proposed a hydroelectric dam to be built across the Strait of Gibraltar, using the inflow current to provide a large amount of hydroelectric energy. The underlying energy grid was as well intended to support a political union between Europe and, at least, the Marghreb part of Africa compare for the later impact and for a later project with some parallels in the planned grid. Fossil evidence from that period reveals that the larger basin had a humid subtropical climate with rainfall in the summer supporting. The subtropical laurel forests retreated; and even as they persisted on the islands of off the Atlantic coast of Iberia and North Africa, the present Mediterranean vegetation evolved, dominated by coniferous trees and trees and shrubs with small, hard, waxy leaves that prevent moisture loss in the dry summers. Much of these forests and shrublands have been altered beyond recognition by thousands of years of human habitation. There are now very few relatively intact natural areas in what was once a heavily wooded region. Because of its latitudinal position and its land-locked configuration, the Mediterranean is especially sensitive to astronomically induced climatic variations, which are well documented in its sedimentary record. Since the Mediterranean is involved in the deposition of eolian dust from the during dry periods, whereas riverine detrital input prevails during wet ones, the Mediterranean marine -bearing sequences provide high-resolution climatic information. These data have been employed in reconstructing astronomically calibrated time scales for the last 9 Ma of the Earth's history, helping to constrain the time of past. Furthermore, the exceptional accuracy of these paleoclimatic records has improved our knowledge of the Earth's orbital variations in the past. As a result of the drying of the sea during the , the marine biota of the Mediterranean are derived primarily from the Atlantic Ocean. The North Atlantic is considerably colder and more nutrient-rich than the Mediterranean, and the marine life of the Mediterranean has had to adapt to its differing conditions in the five million years since the basin was reflooded. The is a transition zone between the two seas, containing a mix of Mediterranean and Atlantic species. The Alboran Sea has the largest population of in the Western Mediterranean, is home to the last population of in the Mediterranean, and is the most important feeding grounds for in Europe. The Alboran sea also hosts important commercial fisheries, including and. The live in the Aegean Sea in Greece. In 2003, the raised concerns about the widespread fishing endangering populations of dolphins, turtles, and other marine animals such as the. This section's factual accuracy is. Relevant discussion may be found on. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are. The image of a simplistic, environmental determinist notion of a Mediterranean Paradise on Earth in antiquity, which was destroyed by later civilisations dates back to at least the 18th century and was for centuries fashionable in archaeological and historical circles. Based on a broad variety of methods, e. The belief stems more from the failure of the recent landscape to measure up to the imaginary past of the as idealised by artists, poets and scientists of the early modern. The historical evolution of climate, vegetation and landscape in southern Europe from prehistoric times to the present is much more complex and underwent various changes. For example, some of the deforestation had already taken place before the Roman age. While in the Roman age large enterprises as the took effective care of forests and agriculture, the largest depopulation effects came with the end of the empire. Humanisation was therefore not the cause of climate change but followed it. The wide ecological diversity typical of Mediterranean Europe is predominantly based on human behavior, as it is and has been closely related human usage patterns. The diversity range was enhanced by the widespread exchange and interaction of the longstanding and highly diverse local agriculture, intense transport and trade relations, and the interaction with settlements, pasture and other land use. The greatest human-induced changes, however, came after , respectively in line with the '1950s-syndrome' as rural populations throughout the region abandoned traditional subsistence economies. Grove and Rackham suggest that the locals left the traditional agricultural patterns towards taking a role as scenery-setting agents for the then much more important tourism travellers. This resulted in more monotonous, large-scale formations. Among further current important threats to Mediterranean landscapes are overdevelopment of coastal areas, abandonment of mountains and, as mentioned, the loss of variety via the reduction of traditional agricultural occupations. Natural hazards volcano in Italy The region has a variety of geological hazards which have closely interacted with human activity and land use patterns. Among others, in the eastern Mediterranean, the , dated to the 17th or 16th century BC, caused a large that some experts hypothesise devastated the on the nearby island of Crete, further leading some to believe that this may have been the catastrophe that inspired the legend. The region around Vesuvius including the Caldera west of Naples are quite active and constitute the most densely populated volcanic region in the world and eruptive event may occur within decades. Vesuvius itself is regarded as quite dangerous due to a tendency towards explosive eruptions. It is best known for its that led to the burying and destruction of the cities of and. The large experience of member states and regional authorities has led to exchange on the international level with cooperation of NGOs, states, regional and municipality authorities and private persons. The is a quite positive example of natural hazards leading to improved relations of traditional rivals in the region after earthquakes in İzmir and Athens 1999. The European Union Solidarity Fund EUSF was set up to respond to major natural disasters and express European solidarity to disaster-stricken regions within all of Europe. The largest amount of fund requests in the EU is being directed to , followed by floodings and earthquakes. Forest fires are, whether man made or natural, an often recurring and dangerous hazard in the Mediterranean region. Also, tsunamis are an often underestimated hazard in the region. For example, the and took more than 123,000 lives in Sicily and Calabria and is among the most deadly natural disasters in modern Europe. Biodiversity See also: and Unlike the vast multidirectional in open within their respective ; in the Mediterranean Sea is that of a stable one due to the subtle but strong locked nature of which affects favorably, even the smallest macroscopic type of. The stable of the Mediterranean Sea and provides a nourishing environment for to flourish while assuring a balanced excluded from any external. Invasive species The is one of the species that colonised the Eastern Mediterranean through the as part of the ongoing. The opening of the in 1869 created the first salt-water passage between the Mediterranean and. The Red Sea is higher than the , so the canal serves as a tidal that pours Red Sea water into the Mediterranean. The , which are hyper-saline natural lakes that form part of the canal, blocked the migration of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean for many decades, but as the salinity of the lakes gradually equalised with that of the Red Sea, the barrier to migration was removed, and plants and animals from the Red Sea have begun to colonise the Eastern Mediterranean. The Red Sea is generally saltier and more nutrient-poor than the Atlantic, so the Red Sea species have advantages over Atlantic species in the salty and nutrient-poor Eastern Mediterranean. Accordingly, Red Sea species invade the Mediterranean biota, and not vice versa; this phenomenon is known as the after , the French engineer or Erythrean invasion. The construction of the across the River in the 1960s reduced the inflow of freshwater and nutrient-rich from the Nile into the Eastern Mediterranean, making conditions there even more like the Red Sea and worsening the impact of the. Invasive species have become a major component of the Mediterranean ecosystem and have serious impacts on the Mediterranean ecology, endangering many local and Mediterranean species. A first look at some groups of exotic species show that more than 70% of the non-indigenous decapods and about 63% of the exotic fishes occurring in the Mediterranean are of Indo Pacific origin, into the Mediterranean through the Suez Canal. According to the definition, as well as CBD and terminologies, they are alien species, as they are non-native non-indigenous to the Mediterranean Sea, and they are outside their normal area of distribution which is the Indo-Pacific region. The Suez Canal, being an artificial man made canal, is a human agency. Whatever wording is chosen, they represent a threat to the native Mediterranean biodiversity, because they are non-indigenous to this sea. In recent years, the Egyptian government's announcement of its intentions to deepen and widen the canal have raised concerns from , fearing that such an act will only worsen the invasion of Red Sea species into the Mediterranean, facilitating the crossing of the canal for yet additional species. Arrival of new tropical Atlantic species In recent decades, the arrival of exotic species from the tropical Atlantic has become a noticeable feature. Whether this reflects an expansion of the natural area of these species that now enter the Mediterranean through the Gibraltar strait, because of a warming trend of the water caused by ; or an extension of the maritime traffic; or is simply the result of a more intense scientific investigation, is still an open question. Rising sea levels will also mean rising salt water levels in Malta's groundwater supply and reduce the availability of drinking water. Coastal ecosystems also appear to be threatened by sea level rise, especially enclosed seas such as the , the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. These seas have only small and primarily east-west movement , which may restrict northward displacement of organisms in these areas. Sea level rise for the next century 2100 could be between 30 cm 12 in and 100 cm 39 in and temperature shifts of a mere 0. Pollution in this region has been extremely high in recent years. The aims to 'reduce pollution in the Mediterranean Sea and protect and improve the marine environment in the area, thereby contributing to its sustainable development. One of them is the which is considered to be among the world's most. The Mediterranean is also plagued by. A 1994 study of the using around the coasts of Spain, France and Italy reported a particularly high mean concentration of debris; an average of 1,935 items per km 2. Shipping A cargo ship cruises towards the Some of the world's busiest shipping routes are in the Mediterranean Sea. It is estimated that approximately 220,000 of more than 100 cross the Mediterranean Sea each year—about one third of the world's total merchant shipping. These ships often carry hazardous cargo, which if lost would result in severe damage to the marine environment. The discharge of chemical tank washings and oily wastes also represent a significant source of marine pollution. The Mediterranean Sea constitutes 0. It is estimated that every year between 100,000 t 98,000 long tons and 150,000 t 150,000 long tons of crude oil are deliberately released into the sea from shipping activities. Approximately 370,000,000 t 360,000,000 long tons of oil are transported annually in the Mediterranean Sea more than 20% of the world total , with around 250—300 crossing the sea every day. Accidental happen frequently with an average of 10 spills per year. A major oil spill could occur at any time in any part of the Mediterranean. Tourism on the received more than 11 million in 2014. The Mediterranean Sea is arguably among the most block basin sea regions in the world, with a unique combination of pleasant climate, beautiful coastline, rich history and various cultures. The Mediterranean region is the most popular tourist destination in the world—attracting approximately one third of the world's international tourists. In that regard, authorities around the Mediterranean have made it a point to extinguish rising man-made chaotic zones that would affect the economies, societies in neighboring coastal countries, let alone. Naval and rescue components in the Mediterranean Sea are considered one of the very best due to the quick intercooperation of various within proximity of each other. Unlike the vast open , the closed nature of the Mediterranean Sea provides a much more adaptable naval initiative among the coastal countries to provide effective naval and rescue missions, considered the safest and regardless of any man-made or. Tourism also supports small communities in coastal areas and islands by providing alternative sources of income far from urban centers. However, tourism has also played major role in the of the coastal and. Rapid development has been encouraged by Mediterranean governments to support the large numbers of tourists visiting the region each year. But this has caused serious disturbance to such as erosion and in many places along the Mediterranean coasts. Tourism often concentrates in areas of high natural wealth, causing a serious threat to the habitats of endangered Mediterranean species such as and. Reductions in natural wealth may reduce incentives for tourists to visit. Main article: Fish stock levels in the Mediterranean Sea are alarmingly low. The European Environment Agency says that more than 65% of all fish stocks in the region are outside safe biological limits and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation, that some of the most important fisheries—such as and , , , , and —are threatened. Large open water fish like tuna have been a shared fisheries resource for thousands of years but the stocks are now dangerously low. In 1999, published a report revealing that the amount of bluefin tuna in the Mediterranean had decreased by over 80% in the previous 20 years and government scientists warn that without immediate action the stock will collapse. Aquaculture This section does not any. Unsourced material may be challenged and. October 2010 is expanding rapidly—often without proper environmental assessment—and currently accounts for 30% of the fish protein consumed worldwide. The industry claims that farmed seafood lessens the pressure on wild fish stocks, yet many of the farmed species are carnivorous, consuming up to five times their weight in wild fish. Mediterranean coastal areas are already over exposed to human influence, with pristine areas becoming ever scarcer. The aquaculture sector adds to this pressure, requiring areas of high water quality to set up farms. The installation of fish farms close to vulnerable and important habitats such as seagrass meadows is particularly concerning. Retrieved 23 April 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2010. Archived from on 2 December 2009. Archived from PDF on 29 March 2017. Archived from on 15 September 2012. Sprache und Religion, Vol. The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean. Doctor of Philosophy, Basel. London: The Grolier Society. Retrieved 17 January 2013. Retrieved 17 January 2013. Gable — - Boglewood Timeline — 1998 — Retrieved 3 September 2011. Al Jazeera — English. Retrieved 12 December 2014. Retrieved 12 December 2014. UNHCR — The UN Refugee Agency. Retrieved 20 April 2016. Geografski obzornik in Slovenian. Association of the Geographical Societies of Slovenia. Choking the Mediterranean to dehydration: The Messinian salinity crisis Geology, 37 2 , 167—170 : 10 January 2015 at the. Messinian salinity crisis regulated by competing tectonics and erosion at the Gibraltar Arc. Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences. Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences. Astronomical calibration of Gauss to Matuyama sapropels in the Mediterranean and implication for the Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale, 104 1991 226—244 Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 1991. Archived from PDF on 24 July 2011. Retrieved 4 December 2009. Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved 8 May 2010. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Archived from PDF on 15 January 2009. Retrieved 11 August 2009. A sea change: exotics in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, in: Leppäkoski, E. Invasive aquatic species of Europe: distribution, impacts and management. Archived from on 9 February 2011. Climate change and coastal management on Europe's coast, in: Vermaat, J. Managing European coasts: past, present and future. Retrieved 23 April 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2010. Archived from on 9 April 2009. Retrieved 23 April 2010. Retrieved 23 April 2010. United Nations Environment Programme. Retrieved 1 August 2008.
The university has remained there to the present today. Invasive species have become a major component of the Mediterranean ecosystem and have serious impacts on the Mediterranean ecology, endangering many local and Mediterranean species. The construction of the across the Pan in the 1960s reduced the inflow of freshwater partnersuche region basel nutrient-rich from the Nile into the Eastern Mediterranean, making conditions there even more like the Red Sea and worsening the impact of the. Climate change and coastal management on Europe's coast, in: Vermaat, J. A characteristic of the civil Mediterranean are submarine or vruljas, which discharge pressurised groundwater into the coastal seawater from below the surface; the discharge water is usually fresh, and sometimes may be thermal. In Islamic and older Arabic literature, it was Baḥr al-Rūm ī بحر الروم or بحر الرومي} 'the Sea of the El' or 'the Roman Sea'. Vermeide die Kommunikation mit all jenen Mitgliedern, die versuchen, persönliche oder finanzielle Informationen von dir zu bekommen. The origin of the name is not clear, as it is not known in earlier Greek, Byzantine or Islamic sources.