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Amandine, semi-dépressive qui alterne biscuit Weight Watcher et Lexomil, et Macao, une. They often made raids, called , on European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell at in North Africa and the. Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are a few natural.
This road is supported by the Algerian government to increase trade between the six countries crossed: Algeria, , , , and. After the death of General , Bouteflika put loyalists in key posts, notably at , and secured constitutional amendments that make him re-electable indefinitely. Giving incentives and rewarding best performers, as well as offering funds in a faster and more flexible manner, are the two main principles underlying the European Neighbourhood Instrument ENI that came into force in 2014.
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The capital and most populous city is , located in the far north of the country. With an area of 2,381,741 square kilometres 919,595 sq mi , Algeria is the , and the largest in Africa since became independent from in 2011. Algeria is bordered to the northeast by , to the east by , to the west by , to the southwest by the territory, , and , to the southeast by , and to the north by the. The country is a consisting of 48 provinces and 1,541 communes counties. Without proper , you may see. Ancient Algeria has known many empires and dynasties, including ancient , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , and the. Algeria is a and. The North African country supplies large amounts of to Europe, and energy exports are the backbone of the economy. According to Algeria has the oil reserves in the world and the second largest in , while it has the of. Algeria has one of the largest militaries in Africa and the largest defence budget on the continent; most of Algeria's weapons are imported from , with whom they are a close ally. Algeria is a member of the , the , , the and is a founding member of the. Main articles: and In the region of Ain Hanech , early remnants 200,000 BC of hominid occupation in were found. Neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the and styles 43,000 BC similar to those in the. Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of techniques. Tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called after the archeological site of , south of. The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called located mainly in the region. This industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. Neolithic civilization animal domestication and agriculture developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11,000 BC or as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC. This life, richly depicted in the paintings, predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The mixture of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a distinct native population that came to be called , who are the indigenous peoples of northern Africa. Ancient ruins of the street leading to the local From their principal center of power at , the expanded and established small settlements along the North African coast; by 600 BC, a presence existed at , east of , modern and modern. These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages. As Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilization was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, and political organization supported several states. Trade links between Carthage and the Berbers in the interior grew, but territorial expansion also resulted in the enslavement or military recruitment of some Berbers and in the extraction of tribute from others. In the , Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the. They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthage's North African territory, and they minted coins bearing the name Libyan, used in Greek to describe natives of North Africa. The Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the. As Carthaginian power waned, the influence of Berber leaders in the hinterland grew. By the 2nd century BC, several large but loosely administered Berber kingdoms had emerged. Two of them were established in , behind the coastal areas controlled by Carthage. West of Numidia lay , which extended across the in modern-day to the Atlantic Ocean. The high point of Berber civilization, unequaled until the coming of the and more than a millennium later, was reached during the reign of in the 2nd century BC. After Masinissa's death in 148 BC, the Berber kingdoms were divided and reunited several times. Masinissa's line survived until 24 AD, when the remaining Berber territory was annexed to the. For several centuries Algeria was ruled by the Romans, who founded many colonies in the region. Like the rest of North Africa, Algeria was one of the breadbaskets of the empire, exporting cereals and other agricultural products. The Germanic of moved into North Africa in 429, and by 435 controlled coastal Numidia. They did not make any significant settlement on the land, as they were harassed by local tribes. In fact, by the time the Byzantines arrived Lepcis Magna was abandoned and the Msellata region was occupied by the indigenous who had been busy facilitating an political, military and cultural revival. Middle Ages Mansourah mosque, Tlemcen After negligible resistance from the locals, of the conquered Algeria in the mid-7th century and a large number of the indigenous people converted to the newly founded faith of Islam. After the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate, numerous local dynasties emerged, including the , , , , , , and the. During the , North Africa was home to many great scholars, saints and sovereigns including , the first grammarian to suggest the language family, the great Sufi masters and , and the Emirs and. It was during this time that the or children of Fatima, daughter of Muhammad, came to the Maghreb. The began to collapse when its governors the seceded. In order to punish them the Fatimids sent the Arab and against them. The resultant war is recounted in the epic. In Al-Tāghrībāt the Amazigh Zirid Hero asks daily, for duels, to defeat the Hilalan hero and many other Arab knights in a string of victories. The , however, were ultimately defeated ushering in an adoption of Arab customs and culture. The indigenous tribes, however, remained largely independent, and depending on tribe, location and time controlled varying parts of the Maghreb, at times unifying it as under the Fatimids. The Fatimid Islamic state, also known as made an Islamic empire that included North Africa, Sicily, , , , , , the coast of Africa, Tihamah, and. Caliphates from Northern Africa traded with the other empires of their time, as well as forming part of a confederated support and trade network with other Islamic states during the Islamic Era. The two main branches were the Botr and Barnès tribes, who were divided into tribes, and again into sub-tribes. Each region of the Maghreb contained several tribes for example, , , , , , Awarba, and. All these tribes made independent territorial decisions. Several dynasties emerged during the Middle Ages in the Maghreb and other nearby lands. In the early 16th century, constructed fortified outposts on or near the Algerian coast. In the same year, a few merchants of Algiers ceded one of the rocky islets in their harbour to Spain, which built a fort on it. The presidios in North Africa turned out to be a costly and largely ineffective military endeavour that did not guarantee access for Spain's merchant fleet. The at its greatest extent, c. Probably in 1048, the Zirid ruler or viceroy, el-Mu'izz, decided to end this suzerainty. The state was too weak to attempt a punitive expedition; The Viceroy, el-Mu'izz, also found another means of revenge. Between the and the were living tribes expelled from for their disruption and turbulent influence, both and among others, whose presence disrupted farmers in the since the nomads would often loot. The then vizier devised to relinquish control of the and obtained the agreement of his sovereign. This not only prompted the Bedouins to leave, but the treasury even gave them a light expatriation cash allowance. Whole tribes set off with women, children, ancestors, animals and camping equipment. Some stopped on the way, especially in , where they are still one of the essential elements of the settlement but most arrived in by the region. The ruler tried to stop this rising tide, but each meeting, the last under the walls of , his troops were defeated and Arabs remained masters of the field. The flood was still rising, and in 1057 the Arabs spread on the high plains of where they gradually choked , as they had done Kairouan few decades ago. From there they gradually gained the upper and plains. Some were forcibly taken by the in the second half of the 12th century. We can say that in the 13th century there were in all of , with the exception of the main mountain ranges and certain coastal regions remained entirely Berber. Ottoman era The Zayyanid kingdom of Tlemcen in the fifteenth century and its neighbors The region of Algeria was partially ruled by for three centuries from 1516 to 1830. In 1516 the privateer brothers and , who operated successfully under the , moved their base of operations to Algiers. They succeeded in conquering Jijel and Algiers from the but eventually assumed control over the city and the surrounding region, forcing the previous ruler, Abu Hamo Musa III of the Bani Ziyad dynasty, to flee. When Aruj was killed in 1518 during his invasion of , Hayreddin succeeded him as military commander of Algiers. The sultan gave him the title of and a contingent of some 2,000. With the aid of this force, Hayreddin conquered the whole area between Constantine and Oran although the city of Oran remained in Spanish hands until 1791. Hayreddin Barbarossa The next beylerbey was Hayreddin's son , who assumed the position in 1544. Until 1587 the area was governed by officers who served terms with no fixed limits. Subsequently, with the institution of a regular Ottoman administration, governors with the title of pasha ruled for three-year terms. The pasha was assisted by janissaries, known in Algeria as the ojaq and led by an. Discontent among the ojaq rose in the mid-1600s because they were not paid regularly, and they repeatedly revolted against the pasha. As a result, the agha charged the pasha with corruption and incompetence and seized power in 1659. Algiers lost from 30,000 to 50,000 inhabitants to the plague in 1620—21, and suffered high fatalities in 1654—57, 1665, 1691 and 1740—42. In 1671, the rebelled, killed the agha, and placed one of its own in power. The new leader received the title of. After 1689, the right to select the dey passed to the , a council of some sixty nobles. It was at first dominated by the ; but by the 18th century, it had become the dey's instrument. In 1710, the dey persuaded the sultan to recognise him and his successors as regent, replacing the in that role, although Algiers remained a part of the Ottoman Empire. The dey was in effect a constitutional autocrat. The dey was elected for a life term, but in the 159 years 1671—1830 that the system survived, fourteen of the twenty-nine deys were assassinated. Despite usurpation, military coups and occasional mob rule, the day-to-day operation of Ottoman government was remarkably orderly. Although the regency patronised the tribal chieftains, it never had the unanimous allegiance of the countryside, where heavy taxation frequently provoked unrest. Autonomous tribal states were tolerated, and the regency's authority was seldom applied in the. The pirates often took the passengers and crew on the ships and sold them or used them as. They also did a brisk business in ransoming some of the captives. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured 1 million to 1. They often made raids, called , on European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell at in North Africa and the. In 1544, Hayreddin captured the island of , taking 4,000 prisoners, and enslaved some 9,000 inhabitants of , almost the entire population. In 1551, enslaved the entire population of the island of , between 5,000 and 6,000, sending the captives to Libya. In 1554, pirates sacked in southern Italy and took an estimated 7,000 captives as slaves. In 1558, Barbary corsairs captured the town of Minorca , destroyed it, slaughtered the inhabitants and took 3,000 survivors as slaves to. Barbary pirates often attacked the , and in response, the residents built many coastal watchtowers and fortified churches. The threat was so severe that residents abandoned the island of. Between 1609 and 1616, England lost 466 merchant ships to Barbary pirates. Two weeks earlier another pirate ship from in had also raided in Iceland. Some of the slaves brought to Algiers were later ransomed back to Iceland, but some chose to stay in Algeria. In 1629 pirate ships from Algeria raided the. Barbary raids in the Mediterranean continued to attack Spanish merchant shipping, and as a result, the Spanish navy bombarded Algiers in 1783 and 1784. In 1792, abandoned Oran, selling it to the Ottoman Empire, and it became the site for a new bey in Algiers, though French influence in the region increased over the 19th century. One American slave reported that the Algerians had enslaved 130 American seamen in the Mediterranean and Atlantic from 1785 to 1793. Piracy on American vessels in the Mediterranean resulted in the United States initiating the 1801—1805 and 1815. Following those wars, Algeria was weaker and Europeans, with an Anglo-Dutch fleet commanded by the British ,. After a nine-hour bombardment, they obtained a treaty from the Dey that reaffirmed the conditions imposed by Captain later Commodore U. Navy concerning the demands of tributes. In addition, the Dey agreed to end the practice of enslaving. Despite being removed from Algeria in the 19th century, Spain retained a presence in. Algeria consistently opposed Spanish fortresses and control in nearby Morocco through the 20th century. French colonization 1830—1962 Battle of Somah in 1836 Under the pretext of a slight to their consul, the French invaded and in 1830. Algerian slave trade and piracy ceased when the French conquered Algiers. The by the French took some time and resulted in considerable bloodshed. A combination of violence and disease epidemics caused the Algerian population to decline by nearly one-third from 1830 to 1872. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830. The population of Algeria, which stood at about 1. During this period, a small but influential French-speaking indigenous elite was formed, made up of Berbers, mostly. As a consequence, French government favored the Kabyles. About 80% of Indigenous schools were constructed for Kabyles. One of France's longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of , who became known as colons and later, as. Between 1825 and 1847, 50,000 French people emigrated to Algeria. Many Europeans settled in and , and by the early 20th century they formed a majority of the population in both cities. The six historical Leaders of the FLN: , , , , and. During the late 19th and early 20th century; the European share was almost a fifth of the population. The French government aimed at making Algeria an assimilated part of France, and this included substantial educational investments especially after 1900. The indigenous cultural and religious resistance heavily opposed this tendency, but in contrast to the other colonised countries' path in central Asia and Caucasus, Algeria kept its individual skills and a relatively human-capital intensive agriculture. Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population, which lacked political and economic status in the colonial system, gave rise to demands for greater political autonomy and eventually independence from France. In May 1945, the uprising against the occupying French forces was suppressed through what is now known as the. Tensions between the two population groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events of what was later called the began. Historians have estimated that between 30,000 and 150,000 and their dependents were killed by the FLN or by mobs in Algeria. The FLN used hit and run attacks in Algeria and France as part of its war, and the French conducted. The war led to the death of hundreds of thousands of Algerians and hundreds of thousands of injuries. Historians, like and , state that the actual number of Algerian Muslim war dead was far greater than the original FLN and official French estimates but was less than the 1 million deaths claimed by the Algerian government after independence. Horne estimated Algerian casualties during the span of eight years to be around 700,000. The war uprooted more than 2 million Algerians. The war against French rule concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained complete independence following the March 1962 and the July 1962. The first three decades of independence 1962—1991 Algeria's first president was the Front de Libération Nationale leader. Morocco's claim to led to the in 1963. Ben Bella was overthrown in 1965 by , his former ally and defence minister. Under Ben Bella, the government had become increasingly socialist and ; Boumédienne continued this trend. But, he relied much more on the army for his support, and reduced the sole legal party to a symbolic role. He agriculture and launched a massive industrialization drive. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the international. In the 1960s and 1970s under President Houari Boumediene, Algeria pursued a program of industrialization within a state-controlled socialist economy. Boumediene's successor, , introduced some liberal economic reforms. He promoted a policy of in Algerian society and public life. Teachers of Arabic, brought in from other Muslim countries, spread conventional Islamic thought in schools and sowed the seeds of a return to Orthodox Islam. The Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil, leading to hardship when the price collapsed during the. Economic recession caused by the crash in world oil prices resulted in Algerian social unrest during the 1980s; by the end of the decade, Bendjedid introduced a multi-party system. Political parties developed, such as the FIS , a broad coalition of Muslim groups. Civil War 1991—2002 and aftermath of over 50 people in 1997—1998. The claimed responsibility for many of them. In December 1991 the dominated the first of two rounds of. Fearing the election of an Islamist government, the authorities intervened on 11 January 1992, cancelling the elections. Bendjedid resigned and a was installed to act as Presidency. It banned the FIS, triggering a civil between the Front's armed wing, the , and the national armed forces, in which more than 100,000 people are thought to have died. The Islamist militants conducted a violent campaign of. At several points in the conflict, the situation in Algeria became a point of international concern, most notably during the crisis surrounding , a hijacking perpetrated by the Armed Islamic Group. The Armed Islamic Group declared a ceasefire in October 1997. Algeria held , considered biased by international observers and most opposition groups which were won by President. The AIS disbanded and levels of insurgent violence fell rapidly. The GSPC , a splinter group of the Group Islamic Army, continued a terrorist campaign against the Government. Bouteflika was re-elected in the after campaigning on a programme of national reconciliation. The programme comprised economic, institutional, political and social reform to modernise the country, raise living standards, and tackle the causes of alienation. It also included a second amnesty initiative, the , which was approved in a. It offered amnesty to most guerrillas and Government security forces. In November 2008, the was amended following a vote in Parliament, removing the two-term limit on Presidential incumbents. This change enabled Bouteflika to stand for re-election in the , and he was re-elected in April 2009. A continuing series of protests throughout the country started on 28 December 2010, inspired by similar. On 24 February 2011, the government lifted Algeria's 19-year-old. The government enacted legislation dealing with political parties, the electoral code, and the representation of women in elected bodies. In April 2011, Bouteflika promised further constitutional and political reform. However, elections are routinely criticized by opposition groups as unfair and international human rights groups say that media censorship and harassment of political opponents continue. Algeria is the largest country in Africa, and the. Its southern part includes a significant portion of the. To the north, the form with the , further south, two parallel sets of reliefs in approaching eastbound, and between which are inserted vast plains and highlands. Both Atlas tend to merge in eastern Algeria. The vast mountain ranges of and occupy the entire northeastern Algeria and are delineated by the Tunisian border. The highest point is 3,003 m. The , the and the compose the Algerian relief. Algeria lies mostly between latitudes and a small area is north of 37°N and south of 19°N , and longitudes and. Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are a few natural. The area from the coast to the Tell Atlas is fertile. South of the Tell Atlas is a landscape ending with the ; farther south, there is the Sahara desert. They are located about 1,500 km 932 mi south of the capital, Algiers, and just east of. Algiers, , , and are Algeria's main cities. Climate and hydrology Lake Agoulmime,. In this region, midday desert temperatures can be hot year round. After sunset, however, the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded. Rainfall is fairly plentiful along the coastal part of the Tell Atlas, ranging from 400 to 670 mm 15. Farther inland, the rainfall is less plentiful. Algeria also has , or sand dunes, between mountains. Among these, in the summer time when winds are heavy and gusty, temperatures can get up to 43. Fauna and flora of Chélia in the The varied vegetation of Algeria includes , and grassy -like regions which all support a wide range of wildlife. Many of the creatures comprising the Algerian wildlife live in close proximity to civilization. The most commonly seen animals include the wild , , and , although it is not uncommon to spot foxes , and. Algeria also has a small and population, but these are seldom seen. A species of deer, the , inhabits the dense humid forests in the north-eastern areas. A variety of bird species makes the country an attraction for bird watchers. The forests are inhabited by boars and jackals. Snakes, , and numerous other reptiles can be found living among an array of throughout the regions of Algeria. Many animals are now extinct, including the , and. In the north, some of the native flora includes scrub, , , and other. The mountain regions contain large forests of evergreens , , and and some deciduous trees. The is indigenous to the coast. In the Sahara region, some oases have palm trees. Abdelaziz Bouteflika Elected politicians are considered to have relatively little sway over Algeria. The most powerful man may be , head of the military intelligence. In recent years, many of these generals have died or retired. After the death of General , Bouteflika put loyalists in key posts, notably at , and secured constitutional amendments that make him re-electable indefinitely. The head of state is the president of Algeria, who is elected for a five-year term. The president was formerly limited to two five-year terms, but a constitutional amendment passed by the Parliament on 11 November 2008 removed this limitation. Algeria has universal at 18 years of age. The President is the head of the , the and the. He appoints the who is also the head of government. The Algerian parliament is ; the lower house, the , has 462 members who are directly elected for five-year terms, while the upper house, the , has 144 members serving six-year terms, of which 96 members are chosen by local assemblies and 48 are appointed by the president. In addition, political campaigns must be exempt from the aforementioned subjects. Parliamentary elections were last held in , and were judged to be largely free by international monitors, though local groups alleged fraud and irregularities. In the elections, the won 221 seats, the military-backed won 70, and the Islamist won 47. Foreign relations President and exchange handshakes at the Windsor Hotel Toya Resort and Spa in Tōyako Town, Abuta District, Hokkaidō in 2008. With them are , left, and , right. Algeria is included in the European Union's ENP which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer. Giving incentives and rewarding best performers, as well as offering funds in a faster and more flexible manner, are the two main principles underlying the European Neighbourhood Instrument ENI that came into force in 2014. In 2009, the French government agreed to compensate victims of nuclear tests in Algeria. Algerian officials and activists believe that this is a good first step and hope that this move would encourage broader reparation. Tensions between Algeria and Morocco in relation to the have been an obstacle to tightening the , nominally established in 1989, but which has carried little practical weight. Military Main article: The military of Algeria consists of the ANP , the MRA , and the QJJ , plus the. It is the direct successor of the Armée de Libération Nationale or ALN , the armed wing of the nationalist National Liberation Front which fought French colonial during the Algerian War of Independence 1954—62. Total military personnel include 147,000 active, 150,000 reserve, and 187,000 paramilitary staff 2008 estimate. Service in the military is compulsory for men aged 19—30, for a total of 12 months. The military expenditure was 4. Russia is also building two diesel for Algeria. It clarified that the Algerian government imposed restriction on ; expression; and right to peaceful demonstration, protest and assembly as well as intensified censorship of the and websites. Due to the fact that the journalists and activists criticize the ruling government, some media organizations' licenses are canceled. Independent and autonomous trade unions face routine harassment from the government, with many leaders imprisoned and protests suppressed. In 2016 a number of unions, many of which were involved in the 2010—2012 Algerian Protests, have been deregistered by the government. Public homosexual behavior is punishable by up to two years in prison. Main articles: , , and Algeria is divided into 48 , 553 and 1,541. Each province, district, and municipality is named after its , which is usually the largest city. The administrative divisions have changed several times since independence. When introducing new provinces, the numbers of old provinces are kept, hence the non-alphabetical order. With their official numbers, currently since 1983 they are Area km 2 Population map Area km 2 Population 1 402,197 439,700 25 2,187 943,112 2 4,975 1,013,718 26 8,866 830,943 3 25,057 477,328 27 2,269 746,947 4 6,768 644,364 28 18,718 991,846 5 12,192 1,128,030 29 5,941 780,959 6 3,268 915,835 30 211,980 552,539 7 20,986 730,262 31 2,114 1,584,607 8 161,400 274,866 32 78,870 262,187 9 1,696 1,009,892 33 285,000 54,490 10 4,439 694,750 34 4,115 634,396 11 556,200 198,691 35 1,591 795,019 12 14,227 657,227 36 3,339 411,783 13 9,061 945,525 37 58,193 159,000 14 20,673 842,060 38 3,152 296,366 15 3,568 1,119,646 39 54,573 673,934 16 273 2,947,461 40 9,811 384,268 17 66,415 1,223,223 41 4,541 440,299 18 2,577 634,412 42 2,166 617,661 19 6,504 1,496,150 43 9,375 768,419 20 6,764 328,685 44 4,897 771,890 21 4,026 904,195 45 29,950 209,470 22 9,150 603,369 46 2,376 384,565 23 1,439 640,050 47 86,105 375,988 24 4,101 482,261 48 4,870 733,060 Graphical depiction of the country's exports in 28 colour-coded categories. Algeria is classified as an upper middle income country by the. Algeria's currency is the DZD. The economy remains dominated by the state, a legacy of the country's socialist post-independence development model. In recent years, the Algerian government has halted the privatization of state-owned industries and imposed restrictions on imports and foreign involvement in its economy. These restrictions are just started to be lifted off recently although questions about Algeria's slow diversifying economy remains. Algeria has struggled to develop industries outside hydrocarbons in part because of high costs and an inert state bureaucracy. The government's efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector have done little to reduce high youth unemployment rates or to address housing shortages. The country is facing a number of short-term and medium-term problems, including the need to diversify the economy, strengthen political, economic and financial reforms, improve the business climate and reduce inequalities amongst regions. Public spending has increased by 27% annually during the past 5 years. The port city of Oran The Algerian economy grew by 2. If hydrocarbons are excluded, growth has been estimated at 4. Growth of 3% is expected in 2012, rising to 4. The rate of inflation was 4% and the budget deficit 3% of GDP. The current-account surplus is estimated at 9. Inflation, the lowest in the region, has remained stable at 4% on average between 2003 and 2007. In addition, Algeria's is extremely low at about 2% of GDP. In 2011, the agricultural sector and services recorded growth of 10% and 5. About 14% of the labor force are employed in the. Fiscal policy in 2011 remained expansionist and made it possible to maintain the pace of public investment and to contain the strong demand for jobs and housing. Algeria has not joined the , despite several years of negotiations. Hydrocarbons Pipelines across Algeria Algeria, whose economy is reliant on petroleum, has been an member since 1969. Its crude oil production stands at around 1. Hydrocarbons have long been the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the in the world and is the. Non-hydrocarbon growth for 2011 was projected at 5%. To cope with social demands, the authorities raised expenditure, especially on basic food support, employment creation, support for SMEs, and higher salaries. High hydrocarbon prices have improved the current account and the already large international reserves position. Income from oil and gas rose in 2011 as a result of continuing high oil prices, though the trend in production volume is downwards. Production from the oil and gas sector in terms of volume, continues to decline, dropping from 43. Nevertheless, the sector accounted for 98% of the total volume of exports in 2011, against 48% in 1962, and 70% of budgetary receipts, or USD 71. The Algerian national oil company is , which plays a key role in all aspects of the oil and natural gas sectors in Algeria. All foreign operators must work in partnership with Sonatrach, which usually has majority ownership in production-sharing agreements. Research and alternative energy sources Algeria has invested an estimated 100 billion dinars towards developing research facilities and paying researchers. This development program is meant to advance alternative energy production, especially solar and wind power. Algeria is estimated to have the largest solar energy potential in the Mediterranean, so the government has funded the creation of a solar science park in Hassi R'Mel. Currently, Algeria has 20,000 research professors at various universities and over 780 research labs, with state-set goals to expand to 1,000. Besides solar energy, areas of research in Algeria include space and satellite telecommunications, nuclear power and medical research. Labour market Despite a decline in total , youth and women unemployment is high. Unemployment particularly affects the young, with a jobless rate of 21. The overall rate of unemployment was 10% in 2011, but remained higher among young people, with a rate of 21. The government strengthened in 2011 the job programmes introduced in 1988, in particular in the framework of the programme to aid those seeking work Dispositif d'Aide à l'Insertion Professionnelle. Tourism The development of the tourism sector in Algeria had previously been hampered by a lack of facilities, but since 2004 a broad tourism development strategy has been implemented resulting in many hotels of a high modern standard being built. There are several in Algeria including , the first capital of the empire; , a Phoenician and later Roman town; and and , both ruins; , a limestone valley containing a large urbanized ; and the of Algiers, an important citadel. The only natural is the , a mountain range. Transport The main highway connecting the Moroccan to the Tunisian border was a part of the project The Algerian road network is the densest in Africa; its length is estimated at 180,000 km of highways, with more than 3,756 structures and a paving rate of 85%. This network will be complemented by the , a major infrastructure project currently under construction. It is a 3-way, 1,216-kilometre-long 756 mi highway, linking in the extreme east to the in the far west. Algeria is also crossed by the , which is now completely paved. This road is supported by the Algerian government to increase trade between the six countries crossed: Algeria, , , , and. Main article: Year Pop. At the outset of the 20th century, its population was approximately four million. About 90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the inhabitants of the Sahara desert are mainly concentrated in , although some 1. Women make up 70% of the country's lawyers and 60% of its judges and also dominate the field of medicine. Increasingly, women are contributing more to household income than men. Between 90,000 and 165,000 from Western Sahara live in the , in the western Algerian Sahara desert. There are also more than 4,000 , who are well integrated and have not asked for assistance from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNHCR. In 2009, 35,000 migrant workers lived in Algeria. The largest concentration of Algerian migrants outside Algeria is in France, which has reportedly over 1. Ethnic groups Main article: Indigenous as well as , , , , , various , and have contributed to the history of Algeria. Descendants of refugees are also present in the population of Algiers and other cities. Moreover, was spoken by these and descendants deep into the 18th century, and even was spoken at the same time by descendants in the small town of Grish El-Oued. Some of Algeria's traditional clothes Despite the dominance of the Berber culture and ethnicity in Algeria, the majority of Algerians identify with an Arabic-based identity, especially after the Arab nationalism rising in the 20th century. Berbers and Berber-speaking Algerians are divided into many groups with varying languages. The largest of these are the Kabyles, who live in the region east of Algiers, the Chaoui of Northeast Algeria, the Tuaregs in the southern desert and the of North Algeria. They were primarily of French, and origin. Almost all of this population left during the war of independence or immediately after its end. Languages Signs in the in three languages: , , and French and are the official languages. Darja is the language used by the majority of the population. Colloquial Algerian Arabic is heavily infused with borrowings from French and Berber. In February 2016, the Algerian constitution passed a resolution that would make Berber an official language alongside Arabic. Although has no official status, Algeria is the second-largest Francophone country in the world in terms of speakers, and French is widely used in government, media newspapers, radio, local television , and both the education system from primary school onwards and academia due to. It can be regarded as a of Algeria. An Abassa Institute study in April 2000 found that 60% of households could speak and understand French or 18 million in a population of 30 million then. After an earlier period during which the Algerian government tried to phase out French which is why it has no official status , in recent decades the government has backtracked and reinforced the study of French and TV programs have reinforced use of the language. Algeria emerged as a bilingual state after 1962. Colloquial is spoken by about 72% of the population and Berber by 27—30%. Islam is the predominant religion in Algeria, with its adherents, mostly Sunnis, accounting for 99% of the population according to a 2012 CIA World Factbook estimate, and 97. There are about 150,000 in the M'zab Valley in the region of. Algeria has given the Muslim world a number of prominent thinkers, including , , , and. Cities Algerian musicians in Tlemcen. Painting by Modern Algerian literature, split between Arabic, and French, has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. Among the important novelists of the 1980s were , later vice-president of , and , murdered by an group in 1993 for his secularist views. The works of the family in pre-colonial times, and of and Sheikh in colonial times, are widely noted. The Latin author was born in Mdaourouch , in what later became Algeria. Contemporary is various in terms of genre, exploring a wider range of themes and issues. There has been a transition from cinema which focused on the war of independence to films more concerned with the everyday lives of Algerians. Media Mohammed Racim was a Painter and founder of the Algerian school of miniature painting Algerian painters, like or Baya, attempted to revive the prestigious Algerian past prior to French colonization, at the same time that they have contributed to the preservation of the authentic values of Algeria. In this line, , have also returned through this art, scenes from the history of the country, the habits and customs of the past and the country life. Other new artistic currents including the one of , and , appeared on the scene of Algerian painting, abandoning figurative classical painting to find new pictorial ways, in order to adapt Algerian paintings to the new realities of the country through its struggle and its aspirations. Literature , the most widely read woman writer in the Arab world. The historic roots of Algerian literature go back to the and era, when wrote , the only Latin novel to survive in its entirety. This period had also known , and , among many others. The Middle Ages have known many Arabic writers who revolutionized the Arab world literature, with authors like , and , who wrote the while staying in Algeria, and many others. In 1957 he was awarded the. Today Algeria contains, in its literary landscape, big names having not only marked the Algerian literature, but also the universal literary heritage in Arabic and French. As a first step, Algerian literature was marked by works whose main concern was the assertion of the Algerian national entity, there is the publication of novels as the Algerian trilogy of , or even Nedjma of novel which is often regarded as a monumental and major work. Other known writers will contribute to the emergence of Algerian literature whom include , , , , Abdelhamid Ben Badis, Mohamed Laïd Al-Khalifa, , , and. In the aftermath of the independence, several new authors emerged on the Algerian literary scene, they will attempt through their works to expose a number of social problems, among them there are , , , and. Currently, a part of Algerian writers tends to be defined in a literature of shocking expression, due to the terrorism that occurred during the 1990s, the other party is defined in a different style of literature who staged an individualistic conception of the human adventure. Among the most noted recent works, there is the writer, the swallows of Kabul and the attack of , the oath of barbarians of , memory of the flesh of and the last novel by Assia Djebar nowhere in my father's House. Music King Folk music styles include , characterized by the poetic songs based on long kacida poems ; Kabyle music, based on a rich repertoire that is poetry and old tales passed through generations; Shawiya music, a folklore from diverse areas of the. Rahaba music style is unique to the Aures. Other Algerian singers of the diaspora include in and in France. Tergui music is sung in generally, had a worldwide success. Finally, the staïfi music is born in and remains a unique style of its kind. Modern music is available in several facets, music is a style typical of Western Algeria. Cinema , the film won the prize at the. The Algerian state's interest in film-industry activities can be seen in the annual budget of DZD 200 million EUR 1. The financial support provided by the state, through the Fund for the Development of the Arts, Techniques and the Film Industry FDATIC and the Algerian Agency for Cultural Influence AARC , plays a key role in the promotion of national production. Between 2007 and 2013, FDATIC subsidised 98 films feature films, documentaries and short films. In mid-2013, AARC had already supported a total of 78 films, including 42 feature films, 6 short films and 30 documentaries. According to the European Audiovisual Observatory's LUMIERE database, 41 Algerian films were distributed in Europe between 1996 and 2013; 21 films in this repertoire were Algerian-French co-productions. Algeria won the for 1975 , two Oscars for , and other awards for. Sports Main article: Various games have existed in Algeria since antiquity. In the , people played several games such as El Kherdba or El khergueba variant. Playing cards, and chess games are part of Algerian culture. Racing and are part of cultural recreation of the Algerians. The first Algerian and African gold medalist is in in the. The second Algerian Medalist was in in Melbourne. Several men and women were champions in athletics in the 1990s including , , , and , all specialized in. Several names are engraved in the history of the sport, including , , , , and. The qualified for the , , and. In addition, several football clubs have won continental and international trophies as the club or. The is an association of Algeria football clubs organizing national competitions and international matches of the selection of Algeria national football team. Cuisine A -based salad Algerian cuisine is rich and diverse. It offers a component of dishes and varied dishes, depending on the region and according to the seasons. The cuisine uses cereals as the main products, since they are always produced with abundance in the country. There is not a dish where cereals are not present. Algerian cuisine varies from one region to another, according to seasonal vegetables. It can be prepared using meat, fish and vegetables. Among the dishes known, , , Couscous, Rechta, Chakhchoukha, Berkoukes, Shakshouka, Mthewem, Chtitha, Mderbel, Dolma, Brik or Bourek, Garantita, Lham'hlou, etc. Cakes are marketed and can be found in cities either in Algeria, in Europe or North America. However, traditional cakes are also made at home, following the habits and customs of each family. Among these cakes, there are Tamina, Baklawa, Chrik, Garn logzelles, Griouech, Kalb el-louz, Makroud, Mbardja, Mchewek, Samsa, Tcharak, Baghrir, Khfaf, Zlabia, Aarayech, Ghroubiya and Mghergchette. Algerian pastry also contains Tunisian or French cakes. Marketed and home-made bread products include varieties such as Kessra or Khmira or Harchaya, chopsticks and so-called washers Khoubz dar or Matloue. Other traditional meals sold often as street food include Mhadjeb, Karantika, Doubara. Chakhchokha-Hassoua-T'chicha-Mahjouba and Doubara are famous in Biskra. Main article: In 2002, Algeria had inadequate numbers of physicians 1. Given Algeria's young population, policy favors preventive health care and clinics over hospitals. In keeping with this policy, the government maintains an immunization program. However, poor sanitation and unclean water still cause , , , , and. The poor generally receive health care free of charge. Health records have been maintained in Algeria since 1882 and began adding Muslims living in the South to their Vital record database in 1905 during French rule. Algerian school children Since the 1970s, in a centralized system that was designed to significantly reduce the rate of illiteracy, the Algerian government introduced a decree by which school attendance became compulsory for all children aged between 6 and 15 years who have the ability to track their learning through the 20 facilities built since independence, now the literacy rate is around 78. From the third year, French is taught and it is also the language of instruction for science classes. The students can also learn English, Italian, Spanish and German. In 2008, new programs at the elementary appeared, therefore the compulsory schooling does not start at the age of six anymore, but at the age of five. Apart from the 122 private, learning at school, the Universities of the State are free of charge. After nine years of primary school, students can go to the high school or to an educational institution. The school offers two programs: general or technical. At the end of the third year of secondary school, students pass the exam of the baccalaureate, which allows once it is successful to pursue graduate studies in universities and institutes. Education is officially compulsory for children between the ages of six and 15. In 2008, the illiteracy rate for people over 10 was 22. The province with the lowest rate of illiteracy was at 11. Algeria has 26 universities and 67 institutions of higher education, which must accommodate a million Algerians and 80,000 foreign students in 2008. The , founded in 1879, is the oldest, it offers education in various disciplines law, medicine, science and letters. Even if some of them offer instruction in like areas of law and the economy, most of the other sectors as science and medicine continue to be provided in French and English. Among the most important universities, there are the , the Constantine, and Es-Senia. The in Tlemcen and Hadj Lakhdar occupy the 26th and 45th row in Africa. 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