"...In women, AVP stimulates affiliative facial motor patterns in response to the faces of unfamiliar women and increases perceptions of the friendliness of those faces."
"Taylor argues that in women the tendency to affiliate with other women in times of stress therefore evolved, because such alliances could aid in childcare and/or provide shelter from attack."
This doesn't explain why women perceve a greater response for unfamiliar, female faces opposed to familiar ones.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16682649/
"In a double-blind, placebo-controlled study, 153 men and 151 women were randomized to receive 24 IU intranasal OT, 20 IU intranasal AVP or placebo. Afterwards, they were imaged with fMRI while playing an iterated Prisoner's Dilemma Game with same-sex partners."
Sex differences in OT and AVP effects were in the samedirection. That is, both neuropeptides enhanced the neuralresponse to CC outcomes in males but decreased the neuralresponse to CC outcomes in females.
Potential alternative explanations include possible sex differences in AVPR1a receptor expression...and interactions with steroid hormones, levels of which differ betweenmen and women.
https://sci-hub.st/https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11682-014-9333-9
"Baseline oxytocin and vasopressin were inversely related to one another"
"Higher vasopressin correlated with younger maternal age, higher BMI, and greater newborn weight loss."
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31033381/
"The size of the Golgi-apparatus (GA) increased with age in women but not in men. In addition, the mean cell profile area, another measure for neuronal activity..was in old women larger than in young women. In conclusion, these data show the presence of a sex-dependent age-difference in the activity of vasopressinergic neurones in the dorsolateral supraoptic nucleus (dl-SON) which may relate to differences in arginine-vasopressin (AVP) and sex hormone levels and kidney AVP receptors."
Data suggest a possible interrelation between AVR and RS3 gene variants of the AVPR1A gene and impulsive aggression in patients with BPD. (more studies need to be gone tho)
https://journals.lww.com/psychgenetics/Citation/2012/04000/Variable_number_of_tandem_repeat_polymorphisms_of.10.aspx
In women, stimulated copeptin responses were significantly correlated with ACTH and cortisol secretion, a phenomenon that was absent in male individuals.
The observed association may be potentially related to the interaction of estrogens and AVP neurons in copeptin secretion in females. Estrogen and androgen receptors are expressed within the PVN and SON in the hypothalamus and thus, they can modulate the synthesis and release of AVP. In a female rat model estrogen exerted an inhibitory effect on the glucocorticoid negative feedback via estrogen receptor-α in the PVN29. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that female stress response has been associated with increased expression of glucocorticoid receptors, but less AVP-expressing neurons30. Thus, it has been hypothesized that the estrogens influence the function and sensitivity of the HPA axis. On the contrary, a study conducted in forty-three women demonstrated that not estrogens, but progesterone regulates the function of HPA axis31.
https://sci-hub.st/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/cen.12608
older adults (63-81 years) had higher plasma AVP levels than young adults (18-31 years).
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306453019300861
Both oestradiol and progesterone were shown have an impact on fluid balance in humans, although the effect on AVP regulation induced by osmotic stimulation appears to be mediated predominantly by oestradiol because progesterone alone did not change the osmotic threshold for AVP release during hypertonic saline infusion in young women.
The results of the present study suggest that ERβ mediates the effects of oestradiol on AVP secretion in response to water deprivation, indicating that the effects of oestradiol occur directly in AVP neurones.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jne.12712
Women receiving intranasal AVP lied more than women receiving intranasal placebo and men receiving intranasal AVP. The dishonest behavior of women treated with AVP gradually escalated with repetition over time.
The correlation analysis showed that in the Self-Serving-Other-Serving condition there was a significant positive correlation between dishonesty score and trial number among AVP-treated women (R = 0.70, P = 1.03 × 10−8), while no significant correlation was found among PlusceBo-treated women
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0018506X20301690
Participants completed the Mother and Father Care subscale of the PBI in a separate session that occurred on a day prior to the drug administration. The are subscale of the PBI asks participants to rate how warm and affection ate their mother and father were during childhood upuntilag.The two 12-item measures(one for mother and one for father)are rate dusing a4-point Like rt-type scale(0=very unlike ;3=verylike)and include questions such as,‘‘Spoke to me in a warm and friendly voice,’’ and ‘‘Was affectionate to me.’’Six participants either did not have a father,or did not choose to rate their father’s level of paternal warmth. A mean composite was created to represent maternal(=.89) and paternal warmth (=.88). Both measures of parental warmth were mean centered in all analyses. Importantly, there were no differences between the AVP, OT, and placebo groups on the two subscales(ps>.3).
Thus, among individuals who experienced higher levels of paternal warmth in childhood, AVP increased empathic concern compared to OT. However, AVP(vs.OT) did not have a significant effecton empathic concern for individuals who experienced lower levels of paternal warmth.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306452214003674
results suggest that cumulative psychosocial stress exacerbates sleep disorders in pregnant women, and that salivary DNA methylation patterns of the AVP gene may be seen as a marker of biological predisposition to stress and sleep reactivity during the perinatal period.
while methylation of AVP was not in itself a significant predictor of disordered sleep, we found asignificant interaction effect between cumulative psychosocial stress and AVP intron 1 methylation, predicting higher rates of disordered sleep in pregnancy and postpartum. This suggests that the AVP systemplays an indirect role in influencing sleep quality during the perinatalperiod, and that this role depends on other underlying contextual factors, such as psychosocial stress. Further, this moderating role of psychosocial stress in the relationship between AVP and sleep points to the possibility that AVP system may be differentially at tuned, via epigenetic influences, to stress and sleep reactivity in individuals who have experienced higher levels of psychosocial adversity.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306453018312113?dgcid=api_sd_search-api-endpoint
A significant dysregulation of geneexpression for CRH, AVP, and HSD11B2 genes was seen in the Index group, compared to controls, while OGT and NR3C1 expression remained similar between groups.
these findings provide novel evidence for the association of perceived maternal anxietyand depression during pregnancy and the dysregulation of placental gene expression of CRH, AVP,and HSD11B2 as potential mechanisms underlying adverse physiological and neurodevelopmental Genes of consequences for the newborn ultimately contributing to disease risk.
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/43cf/714cfdd0a3683d8594a7986a34fb86c0683e.pdf?_ga=2.82274002.532639203.1619066944-1343403546.1619066944
By releasing arginine vasopressin (AVP) and corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), the amygdala, the sympathetic nervous system as well as pituitary-adrenal axis are activated. The anterior pituitary is then caused by CRF to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) which then activates the production of cortisol in the suprarenal gland.
When exposed to chronic stress, for example in the case of parental divorce, a dendritic reduction and loss of spines in the hippocampal and in the medial amygdala is suggested, whereas proposing an expansion of dendrites in the basolateral amygdala, resulting in an imbalance of the hypothalamo-560 pituitary-adrenal axis as well as in structural and functional alterations in both regions
Our results show that adults who have experienced divorce as children exhibit an ncreased risk for mental disorders.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022395619304510
Greater exposure to father absence was strongly associated with elevated risk for early sexual activity and adolescent pregnancy.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12795391/
Early father involvement with daughters has been associated with a decreased risk of early puberty, decreased early sexual experiences, and decreased teen pregnancy. Extrapolating from animal studies, exposure to fathers’ pheromones may slow female pubertal development
In general, increased father involvement has been associated with improved cognitive development, social responsiveness, independence, and gender role development, particularly in females.
Although mothers are generally more involved with their children’s direct care, a father’s participation in care has been linked to higher adherence to treatment, better child psychological adjustment, and improved health status compared with families with nonparticipating fathers
https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/138/1/e20161128
It is striking that many of these disorders such as depression, anxiety disorders and post-traumatic stress and somatoform and dissociative disorders are more prevalent in women...the differentiating effect of hormones and neuropeptides such as oxytocin and vasopressin, the tend and befriend response and factors such as abuse and attachment disruption in early childhood.
http://www.tijdschriftvoorpsychiatrie.nl/en/issues/413/articles/2817
E2 treatment elicited a sufficiently rapid elevation of CRH mRNA levels to suggest that crh could be classified as an immediate-early gene (IEG). We then showed that both ERα and ERβ occupy the Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone Gene (crh) region of the crh promoter selectively and that E2 further increases ER occupancy.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2194609/
Two overlapping segments of the 5' flanking region of the human (h) CRH gene, the proximal 0.9 kb (containing two perfect half-palindromic estrogen-responsive elements [EREs]) and the 2.4 kb (including the former and containing two additional perfect half-palindromic EREs), were examined for their ability to confer estrogen-mediated transcriptional enhancement to a homologous or heterologous promoter.
Gel retardation and immunoprecipitation demonstrated specific association between the perfect half-palindromic EREs of hCRH gene and the DNA binding domain of hER in vitro. These findings may constitute the basis of sexual dimorphism in the expression of the CRH gene in the central nervous system and periphery, and might shed light in existing gender differences in stress response and immune regulation.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC288355/
Associations between the AVPR1A RS3 repeat polymorphism and pair bonding behaviour (specifically, fidelity) in men and age of first sexual intercourse in men and women have been observed. Interestingly, in females the age of first inter-course was associated with the AVPR1A RS1 polymorphism. The personality measures ‘novelty seeking’ and ‘harm avoidance’ — which contribute to impulsivity and anxiety during social interactions, respectively — were also associated with the RS1 genotype.
https://www.nature.com/articles/nrn3044
For women, no SNPs in the OXTR gene showed nominally significant associations, but five out of seven AVPR1A SNPs were associated with extrapair mating at pb< 05.
Gene-based test results (Table 4) show that the AVPR1A gene wassignificantly associated with extrapair mating when women and men were combined, but only in women when the sexes were analysed separately.
our findings in men and women roughly accord with the findings of https://www.researchgate.net/publication/8123049_Genetic_Influences_on_Female_Infidelity_and_Number_of_Sexual_Partners_in_Humans_A_Linkage_and_Association_Study_of_the_Role_of_the_Vasopressin_Receptor_Gene_AVPR1A in British women; in that study, genes were esti-mated to account for 41% of the variation in women's lifetime extrapair mating.
https://web.archive.org/web/20210211223447/https://www2.psy.uq.edu.au/~uqbziets/Zietsch%20et%20al%202014%20Genetic%20analysis%20of%20extrapair%20mating.pdf
Based on previousanimal and human findings, we also tested for association of the arginine vasopressin receptor 1A gene(AVPR1A) and oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) with extrapair mating. We found gene-based association for AVPR1A in women but not in men, and OXTR showed no significant association in either sex. Overall, these findings confirm genetic underpinnings of extrapair mating in humans, but do not suggest that women's predisposition to extrapair mating is due to selection on men.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1090513814001317
Sex differences also were found; females had higher densities of OT receptor binding but lower densities of V(1a) receptor binding than did males in both species.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16289323/
The primary finding was that AVP levels were higher in patients compared to healthy controls; no group differences were evident in OT levels. Moreover, AVP was associated with more prominent positive symptoms and poorer verbal learning prior to treatment in female, but not male, patients.
Higher levels of AVP might be the result of stressors precipitating the psychotic episode or alternatively could result from stress associated with the psychotic episode itself. Alternatively excessive dopamine release, which is thought to represent an important component in the neurobiology of psychosis (Abi-Dargham et al. 1998; Laruelle et al., 1996), may increase the synthesis or release of AVP or cause a cascade of catecholamines, influencing AVP release.
Although peripheral AVP levels do not typically differ between the sexes, animal and human studies suggest that the effects of central AVP on behavior are sexually dimorphic
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3622845/
Transdermal treatment with estradiol five days resulted in an...increase in mean circulating levels of vasopressin.
Oral administration of medroxyprogesterone in a dose of 10 mg per day for 5 days, which resulted in a mean plasma level of 4.3 nmol/l, suppressed vasopressin concentrations to 0.60 pmol/l.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7618454/
In the women with premenstrual pain the vasopressin concentrations were significantly higher than in the corresponding control group. Even higher and markedly fluctuating vasopressin levels were found in the women with dysmenorrhea who, in general, had more intense pain than the women with premenstrual symptoms.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6542295/
Dysmenorrhea is thought to be caused by the release of prostaglandins in the menstrual fluid, which causes uterine contractions and pain. Vasopressin also may play a role by increasing uterine contractility and causing ischemic pain as a result of vasoconstriction. Elevated vasopressin levels have been reported in women with primary dysmenorrhea.
https://www.aafp.org/afp/2005/0115/p285.html
In the women with premenstrual pain the vasopressin concentrations were significantly higher than in the corresponding control group. Even higher and markedly fluctuating vasopressin levels were found in the women with dysmenorrhea who, in general, had more intense pain than the women with premenstrual symptoms.
It is concluded that the pathophysiology of premenstrual pain could imply increased vasopressin secretion. The more severe pain in primary dysmenorrhea seems to be the result of a combined effect of vasopressin and PGF2alpha
https://obgyn.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.3109/00016348409156715
In female patients, lower OT levels were associated with lower low-frequency fluctuations (ALFF) in frontal and cerebellar cortices (p's < 0.05) and in female controls AVP levels were inversely associated with ALFF in the frontal cortex (p = 0.01).
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0920996418304183?dgcid=api_sd_search-api-endpoint
AVP administration effects are also sex dependent, with AVP having opposite effects on temporal-limbic and insular activity during cooperative interactions, with increased activation in men and decreased activation in women.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jnr.23820
In women, higher AVP was associated with lower betweenness in left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and higher OT was associated with lower nodal degree in left IFG (pars orbitalis).
In women, higher nodal efficiency in left IFG (pars orbitalis) was associated with better verbal learning and verbal fluency. However, higher betweenness in left IPG was associated with worse emotion recognition.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/jnr.23820
AVP is increasingly expressed and co-released from parvocellular PVH neurons, andtravels to the pituitary to act as a co-secretagogue with CRF to enhance ACTH release.
VP has been shown to exert both beha-vioural effects such as, e.g., increased anxiety followingintracerebroventricular administration, and to increase CRH-induced ACTH secretion from pituitary corticotropecells (Antoni, 1993; Bhattacharya et al., 1998; Landgrafet al., 1995). After prolonged stress, AVP is increasingly expressed and released from hypothalamic neurons in both humans and rodents.
In clinical studies, plasma AVP concentrations were found to be significantly correlated with anxiety-related symptoms in healthy volunteers in re-sponse to an anxiogenic drug challenge and were demonstrated to be elevated in depressed patients.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs00726-006-0333-y
Evidence was found for an association between the AVPR1A gene and maternal sensitivity. Mothers with two copies of the long RS3 alleles were less sensitive than mothers with one or zero copies of the long alleles. This association was strongest under conditions of high maternal early adversity.
This interaction is consistent with prior research on the influence of stress and AVP on the HPA axis.
With respect to the AVP system more specifically, variation in early maternal care (e.g. experience of neglect) is associated with lower AVP levels suggesting that experience may influence the development of the AVP system.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1601-183X.2012.00769.x
Early adversity and telomere length were significantly associated. Sensitivity analyses revealed no outlier effects. Adversity type and timing significantly impacted the association with telomere length.
https://www.nature.com/articles/mp201726
In infants whose mothers reported higher scores on the Adverse Childhood Experience questionnaire, greater telomere attrition predicted higher externalizing problems, even when accounting for maternal postnatal depression and prenatal stress.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31509004/
Early pubertal timing but not pubertal status was associated with shorter telomere length in preadolescent girls. Early age at menarche was associated with shorter telomere length in a sample of mothers of preadolescent youth.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022347620302900
Laboratory investigations into hormonal release during human sexual activity show that oxytocin is necessary for subjective pleasure during arousal and orgasm in both sexes, while vasopressin is released only during male arousal. Vasopressin is suggested to have the opposite effect on female sexuality, and to impair women's interest in sexual contact.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14681990412331297974
AVP activityexcites neurons in the medial part of the central amygdala thatstimulate fear arousal and responses.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0301051107001494
To evaluate these hypotheses, diurnal ACTH and cortisol secretion was studied in 11 obese and 9 lean premenopausal women (body mass index: obese 33.5 +/- 0.9 vs. lean 21.2 +/- 0.6 kg/m(2), P < 0.001) in the early follicular stage of their menstrual cycle.
Daily ACTH secretion was substantially higher in obese than in lean women (7,950 +/- 1,212 vs. 2,808 +/- 329 ng/24 h, P = 0.002), whereas cortisol was not altered (obese 36,362 +/- 5,639 vs. lean 37,187 +/- 4,239 nmol/24 h, P = 0.912).
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15280154/
Depressed women manifested increased approximate entropy, indicating more disorderly secretion, of ACTH and elevated forward cross-approximate entropy of ACTH on cortisol, denoting unopposed ACTH drive.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16478816/
The increase of androstenedione in the pre-ovulatory stage was significantly high than that seen during the early follicular phase of the cycle. The increase of 17 alpha-OH-progesterone in the luteal phase was significantly less than that of both the early and late follicular stages of the cycle. Progesterone levels showed a small, but significant increase after ACTH-stimulation, in both the early and late stage of the follicular phase. However, the levels remained within the normal range of the follicular phase. In the luteal phase no increase was seen after ACTH-stimulation. Oestradiol-17 beta levels did not change at all after ACTH stimulation. The stage dependency of androstenedione and 17 alpha-OH-progesterone is discussed. The described stage-dependency different increase of 17 alpha-OH-progesterone release can be of importance when the results of ACTH-tests are evaluated to detect carriers of congenital adrenal hyperplasia.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6287785/
Significant group differences emerged for ACTH and salivary-free cortisol stress responses: Although men showed higher ACTH responses to the TSST compared with each of the three groups of women, salivary cortisol responses showed the following response pattern: Luteal = Men > Follicular = OC. The salivary cortisol responses to ACTH1-24 showed a similar response pattern: Luteal > Men > Follicular > OC. In contrast, total blood cortisol levels did not reveal any group difference between sexes or follicular versus luteal phase in either test. Although a similar salivary-free cortisol increase after awakening was found in the four groups, the circadian cortisol profile was significantly different throughout the first 4 hours of sampling.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10204967/
ACTH was characterized by a decrease during the follicular phase, a nadir at day −2, followed by a significant increase to a peak at day 0, then a subsequent decrease and constant levels during the luteal phase until day +8. Cortisol was lowest in the follicular phase until day −4, and highest from day −2 today 0. During the luteal phase, cortisol remained constant
https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article-abstract/41/3/431/2685095?redirectedFrom=fulltext
Plasma ACTH concentrations were at their highest the day before the day of the ascending phase of the LH surge and significantly higher than the day of the descending phase and the day after the day of the descending phase (p < 0.02). Plasma cortisol concentrations were at their highest, with almost similar values, the day before the day of the ascending phase, the day of the ascending phase and the day of the LH peak; then, plasma cortisol concentrations were significantly lower than those of the preceding days, the day of the descending phase (p = 0.0001) and the day after the day of the descending phase (p = 0.02), when plasma 17beta-Estradiol starts to decrease.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16648815/
vasopress intends to show anxiogenic and depressive actions.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S016622361200152X?dgcid=api_sd_search-api-endpoint
In women, AVP administration reduced the ability to recognize sad faces and improved the ability to recognize fearful faces.
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/european-psychiatry/article/sexspecific-effect-of-intranasal-vasopressin-but-not-oxytocin-on-emotional-recognition-and-perception-in-schizophrenia-patients/F41911911EA06B8AEAF82C63FFCB6B41
First steroids "organize" brain structures early in life and during puberty, and in adults these same hormones "activate" sexually dimorphic behaviors.
Studies with gonadectomized rodents establishes an activational role for E2 that facilitates vulnerability in females, and when E2 is combined with progesterone, addiction is attenuated.
In both humans and rodents, hormonal cycles are associated with females' faster progression to addiction.
These adaptations may ultimately serve to guide the motivational behaviors that underlie the factors that cause women to be more vulnerable to cocaine and opiate addiction than men.
Sex differences and sensitivity to gonadal hormones within the structure and functions of the mesolimbic reward system are linked to sex differences in the neurobehavioral response to drugs of abuse. It has also been demonstrated that the underlying cause of these sex differences on DA signaling is the cyclic fluctuation in E2 levels and its downstream neurobiological effects.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7251038/
Addiction investigators have also uncovered that women are more likely to use cocaine at an earlier age, take the drug in larger quantities, and have greater difficulty remaining abstinent compared to men. Additionally, women report that when estrogen levels are rising during their menstrual cycles, they experience a greater “high” from cocaine administration.
estrogen in the brains of women that likely primes their response to survival-related rewards can also make them more vulnerable to addiction.
https://neurosciencenews.com/cocaine-addiction-estrogen-5904/
After both 10 and 30 days of estrogen deprivation, apparently 30 percent of the total number of substantia nigra dopamine cells are lost, Furthermore, the density calculations showed that brief estrogen replacement restores the density of the total number of neurons in that area of the brain 10 days after the ovaries have been removed, but not 30 days later.
This also provides another rationale for estrogen replacement therapy for postmenopausal women
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2000/12/001204072446.htm
this research has progressed, it has become apparent that there is considerable overlap between the processes that underlie pair bonding and those that mediate responses to abused substances. This suggests that social bonding and substance abuse each may affect the other.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0006899306022815
these data suggest two important things about romantic passion: Foremost, romantic love may be aprimarymotivation system, a fundamental human mating drive.
Like drives, romantic love is tenacious; it is focused on a specific reward; it is not associated with any particular facial expression; it is exceedingly difficult to control; and it is associated with dopamine-rich neural regions.
However, acti-vation of subcortical dopaminergic pathways of the VTA and caudate nucleus may comprise only the “general arousal” component of early-stage intenseromantic love.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/cne.20772
It is possible that AVP directly induces epinephrine production and cortisol secretion, consequently, conserving the blood volume and elevating blood pressure. Elevated copeptin levels appear to be correlated with PE severity and the stress associated with vaginal delivery, thus stimulating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.
http://ijwhr.net/pdf/pdf_IJWHR_560.pdf
We found that plasma K+ decreased more in females, and, consequently, females were more prone to develop diabetes insipidus (NDI).
Altered water balance coincided with a decrease in aquaporin-2 (AQP2) phosphorylation and apical localization despite increased levels of the vasopressin surrogate marker copeptin.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33749322/
The lack of E2 caused a significant increase in the level of AVP compared to control group. However, administration of E2 and RAL in three different doses evoked a decrease in the concentration of AVP in plasma. In addition, an inverse correlation was found between the dose of RAL and AVP levels. These results indicate that vasopressin expression is regulated by E2 and RAL, suggesting an important role in the therapy of cardiovascular events.
Estrogen bound to its receptor modulates the release of arginine vasopressin (AVP)
Our findings are in accordance with a previous study that proved the increasing activity of AVP neurons in postmenopausal women [7]. We also proved, that this increased AVP content could be strongly reversed with E2 or RAL treatment.
https://biomedres.us/fulltexts/BJSTR.MS.ID.002969.php
The AVP part of the dl-SON of young women contained 50 times more neurons with ERbeta nuclear staining than that in young men and 250 times more than that in elderly women.
Our data demonstrate for the first time a strong decrease of ERbeta and an increase of ERalpha immunoreactivity in AVP neurons of the dl-SON of postmenopausal women. Both receptor changes are proposed to participate in the activation of the AVP neurons in postmenopausal women.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10999823/
Analysis showed that CT-proAVP was inversely related to anxiety only in men, but not in women.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306453018308345
AVP also has ACTH-releasing properties when administered in humans and in combination with CRF has a synergistic effect resulting in a much greater ACTH response, with both peptides required for maximal stimulation of the HPA axis. The central vasopressin system is anatomically and functionally separated from the periphery by the blood–brain barrier and regulates behavioural CNS-mediated responses, including learning and memory, and social behaviours. The distribution of the vasopressin receptors in the brain, classified in V1A, V1B (also named V3), and V2, is more wide-spread in comparison to CRF receptors but substantially less than the GR. Circulating glucocorticoids exert a negative feedback effect on the expression of CRF and AVP in parvocellular PVN neurons and the AVP gene, in particular, is targeted by this suppression. The mRNA levels of both CRF and the CRF1 receptors are reduced by elevated glucocorticoid levels whereas the mRNA levels of the V1B receptor and subsequent coupling to PLC can be stimulated by glucocorticoids. This effect, in turn, may contribute to the refractoriness of AVP-stimulated ACTH secretion to glucocorticoid feedback.
https://bpspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.14710
Furthermore, there are many potential ways in which vasopressin could influence glucose metabolism; in particular, the vasopressin 1a receptor, which is widely expressed in the body, is involved in glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver (17, 18). Additionally, the vasopressin 1b receptor is expressed in the anterior pituitary gland, where it, together with corticotrophin-releasing hormone, mediates release of adrenocorticotrophin hormone and thus is important for the endocrine stress response
Vasopressin is established as an independent risk factor for diabetes, the metabolic syndrome, chronic kidney disease, cardiovascular disease, and premature death in the population
A study in rats supported a beneficial role of increased water intake and decreased circulating vasopressin for metabolic health; this study demonstrated a favorable effect on metabolism when vasopressin was reduced by increased hydration, whereas sustained vasopressin infusion impaired glucose tolerance.
https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/104/6/1917/5250690
In males, there was a significant positive association between the percent change in copeptin levels and log-transformed salivary (β-coefficient = 1.33, p = 0.016) and serum cortisol (β-coefficient = 0.69, p = 0.01), whereas in women there was no statistically significant association.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306453015009579?dgcid=api_sd_search-api-endpoint
Research findings in our laboratory and others show that there are sex differences and menstrual cycle differences in the osmotic release of arginine vasopressin (AVP) and onset of thirst during hyperosmotic conditions such as dehydration, and that these differences are primarily driven by estradiol.
Resting Plasma AVP is greater in men than in women (in the early follicular phase).
Schematic to illustrate the complex control of fl uid and sodium balance and the multiple ways in which estradiol (E2) and progesterone (P4) may infl uence these processes. AVP indicates arginine vasopressin; ANG II, angiotensin II; CNS, central nervous system; PNS, peripheral ner-vous system; RAAS, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-319-44558-8_9
Vasopressin, secreted during the male arousal phase, is linked to men's drive for sexual expression. This peptide may have the opposite effect on women and impair arousal and motivation due to the link between vasopressin release and aggression.
Women who request help for a loss of sexual interest with a specificpartner commonly describe anger, resentment and hostility, emanating from the cou-ple’s relationship
after female rats give birtha natural increase in vasopressin is found inbrain circuits, which has been linked to theneurochemistry of aggressive and hostile reac-tions that enable the mother to protect heroffspring from danger[28]. Most significantly,when vasopressin is artificially placed in aprecise area of the female rat brain the resultis an instant decline in acceptance of copula-tion[29]. It is possible, therefore, that whenwomen have negative feelings such as disap-pointment or anger in a couple relationship,they are secreting vasopressin in the centralnervous system, which impairs sexual arousalmechanisms and thereby inhibits the motiva-tion for sex.
Female arousal and hence the motivation for sex may be significantly impaired by...a predominance of vasopressin.
If circulating stress hormones (cor-tisone and corticosterone) are consistently high, the synthesis of receptors for oxytocinand vasopressin may be impaired[
https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/pdfplus/10.1016/j.jmhg.2005.05.003
If the number of males is equal to or larger than that of females, there is a strong tendency toward monogamy, irrespective of the dispersion. If that situation is not the case, then if the duration of the breeding season is long, there is a strong tendency toward polygamy. When neither situation is true, female dispersion is a good predictor of monogamous behavior, as expected by the hypothesis (Fig. 1, red data points, R2 = 0.75, for simulations with few males (15 agents) and a short season duration
The longer the breeding season, the longer the polygamous males will continue copulating beyond the monogamous ones. For a shorter season, there is no time for polygamous males to compensate for the initial advantage of monogamous males in cases where females are very dispersed; therefore, the distance between females has a stronger effect on the fitness for each behavior. Moreover, this compensation can only occur if there are enough females available, which explains why polygamy only appears consistently in the model in situations where females outnumber males.
when we decrease the monogamous male protections and allow extra-pair copulation, we see the effect of breeding season duration and female dispersion on mating behavior even when males outnumber females. The dynamics become even clearer, fitting our interpretation that monogamy is a better strategy when there are few females available relative to males, when the reproductive season duration is short and when female dispersion is high.
https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-018-20790-7
In both the men and the women the AVP level was higher in winter than in any other season (P < 0.01 and P < 0.0001, respectively).
In women, the AVP level was higher at noon than at midnight in 55% of the investigated 24 hr periods, at the same level in 25% and lower in 20% (NS).
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-079X.1998.tb00541.x
the release of vasopressin within the central amygdala was positively correlated with the display of offensive [maternal] behaviour.
vasopressin is an important neuropeptide regulating maternal aggressive behaviour, thus further extending its involvement in female social behaviour. Differences in intracerebral vasopressin release within the central amygdala rather than local vasopressin receptor binding contribute to the level of maternal aggression.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20374286/
cage changes parentsand their offspring were either transferred between cages in a cup (zeromanipulation, MAN0) or with a gloved hand (one manipulation, MAN1).
In adulthood they weretested for the capacity to form partner preferences, behavior in an elevated plus-maze (EPM), and corticosterone levels. (Females had higher baseline corticosterone levels than males)
MAN0 females (but notmales) were less likely to form pair bonds than MAN1 females. MAN0 animals ofboth sexes were less exploratory in the EPM than MAN1 counterparts. Theseexperiments support the hypothesis that behaviors used to characterize monogamy are vulnerable in a sex-specific manner to early experience.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/dev.20216
The four determinations of vasopressin concentrations did not differ significantly. Plasma vasopressin showed, however, a tendency to increase on days 11-13, when the peak concentration of serum estradiol occurs.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6840674/
Vasopressin was on average four times more potent than oxytocin in vivo. The effect of vasopressin premenstrually was more pronounced than in women under oestrogen influence only (proliferative phase-hyperproliferation; P= 0.02), and tended to be more marked than in those in the luteal phase (P = 0.07).
The high potency of vasopressin in nonpregnant women, particularly premenstrually, firmly supports an aetiological importance of this peptide in the uterine hyperactivity of primary dysmenorrhoea.
https://obgyn.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1471-0528.1995.tb10880.x
in the luteal phase, the threshold for AVP release and the gain or sensitivity of the osmostat are reduced together with lowering of the thirst threshold, which account for the lower basal luteal plasma osmolality.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1365-2265.1985.tb01062.x
Males raised in Tradeoff families exhibit retarded social approach behavior and increased avpr1a gene expression in the LS, and both sexes exhibit increased methylation of the avpr1a gene in the LS.
DNA methylation of CpG #113 was significantly higher in both males and females raised in Tradeoff families, and this methylation significantly and positively correlated with LS avpr1a mRNA expression.
The observation that both male and female offspring demonstrated similarly high levels of LS avpr1a methylation at CpG #113 suggests that the female brain should be comparably susceptible to DNA modification.
https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/6/36/eabb9116
Estrogen receptors are widely distributed in the brain, including the limbic system and the hypothalamus (48). Our
findings implicate the CRH gene and, therefore, the HPA axis, as a potentially important target of ovarian steroids and a potential mediator of gender related differences in the stress response and HPA axis activity.
These effects of estrogens on the CRH neuron suggest that the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, which is known to be inhibited by hormones of the HPA axis at the hypothalamic, pituitary, gonadal, and sex steroid target tissue levels during stress, appears to be also influencing the latter in a positive fashion, by slightly enhancing CRH gene transcription. Thus, these data support a mutual, bidirectional interaction between the HPG and HPA axes. In addition to explaining the slightly increased, basal and stress-stimulated HPA axis function in the female gender
https://dm5migu4zj3pb.cloudfront.net/manuscripts/116000/116782/JCI93116782.pdf
Because the ovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle is characterized by high estradiol and low progesterone, cyclic shifts in women’s mate preferences are generally thought to reflect the effects of estradiol and/or progesterone. This being the case, the dual mating strategy hypothes is also predicts that women’s matep references will track changes in estradiol and/or progesterone, although some research has also implicated testosterone and cortisol.
One recent study reported a positive effect of progesterone on in-pair versus extra-pair desire. Since progesterone is higher during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle than at other times(seeFigure2) ,this finding was interpreted as evidence for the extended sexuality hypothesis. However, the results of studies finding that various aspect sof sexual desire, including in-pair desire, actually increase during the ovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle(i.e., when progesterone is low) are difficult to reconcile with this extended sexuality hypothesis. It could be that in-pair desire increases during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle in only a subgroup of women, such as those in particularly committed relationships.
Specific evidence for this model of hormonal regulation of mating psychology in humans comes from studies reporting an increase in women’s general sexual desire, interest in sex with attractive men, including those they do not know well, and assertiveness during the ovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle.
recent work suggesting that increased sexual desire during the ovulatory phase of the menstrual cycle is accompanied by decreased food intake.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1364661318302560
These data therefore confirm that women with visceral obesity have hyperactivity of the HPA axis, and that the combined CRF/AVP stimulation may offer a good tool for investigating pituitary reserve in this obesity phenotype.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8606643/
Among married couples, with polygynously married men included in multiple pairs, 70% had at least one child whose father was not the husband. This is a minimum threshold, as not all children within a pair were necessarily sampled.
https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/6/8/eaay6195
Overall, a woman's sociosexuality (i.e., unrestricted sexuality) influences the distinctiveness of her short- and long-term mate preferences.
As expected, genetic traits were favoured for short-term relationships; material traits were favoured for long-term relationships. However, women with a more restricted sexuality preferred short-term mates who closely resembled their long-term preferences.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S019188691730065X?via%3Dihub
If females with more feminized morphology have higher ‘mate value', this might be associated with dissatisfaction with current partners, leading to impulsive extra-pair matings and seeking alternative mates. Indeed, our results chime with higher 2D:4D in women being associated with reduced delay-discounting, implying higher impulsivity, which link to opportunistic mating.
DRD2 rs4648317 was significantly additively associated with Dr-l (electronic supplementary material, table S1), but only for
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2018.0642
Based on 4 samples comprising a total of 1,257 Chinese women, we found that women in general and those with high socioeconomic status in particular (Study 1), as well as women in cities compared with rural women (Study 2), preferred good-father over good-provider and good-genes attributes in long-term relationships. Similar results were obtained in an experimental study (n 123) where, under good economic compared to poor economic and control conditions, women prioritized good-father over good-provider and good-genes attributes. . These findings indicate that in modern-day economies, in which a woman spends the same amount of time and energy on education and employment and acquires approximately the same amount of resources and same extent of safety and disease protection as men, her mate preference is likely to center on good-father attributes, as her reproductive success depends on a helper at the nest increasingly more than other mate contributions.
https://doi.org/10.1037/EBS0000048
The trade-off between genetic and parental quality is shaped further by eco-logical factors, such as historical levels of disease and resource scarcity, which influence fitness outcomes for offspring. For example, when rates of infectious disease are high, it would be prudent to favour mates with symmetrical faces, as symmetry is highly correlated with immunological functioning (Trivers et al.,1999; Thornhill, 1997). Additionally, when women’s economic independence is low, they should favour men with wealth and high status (Stanik & Ellsworth,2010; Lu et al., 2015). Cross-cultural research has also shown that people fromcountries with a low average birth rate, high infant mortality, higher parasitestress, or shorter life expectancy are less likely to engage in uncommitted sex-ual behaviour (Schmitt, 2002; Schaller & Murray, 2008; Thornhill et al., 2010;Muggleton & Fincher, 2017).
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1090513818300643?via%3Dihub
This accounts for 17.6 per cent of all marital births. Of the 36 women who had at least one extra-pair birth, 20 had one, nine had two and six had three or more.
Post-reproductive women who had at least one extra-pair birth have significantly higher reproductive success than women with none.
https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsbl.2011.0478
"Our research shows that the chance of having extra-pair paternity events in your family history really depends on the social circumstances of your ancestors. If they lived in cities and were of the lower socioeconomic classes, the chances that there were EPP events in your family history are much higher than if they were farmers."
The evidence showed no significant difference in EPP rates between countries despite key religious differences, they report. But they varied widely with socioeconomic status and population density. The EPP rate was much lower among farmers and more well-to-do craftsmen and merchants (about 1%) than among lower class laborers and weavers (about 4%).
EPP rates also rose with population density. Putting the two together, the researchers report that the estimated EPP rates for the families varied by more than one order of magnitude, from about 0.5% among the middle to high classes and farmers living in the most sparsely populated towns to almost 6% for the low socioeconomic classes living in the most densely populated cities.
https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2019-11/cp-ddo110719.php
research shows that sex happens far more often whenever the woman takes the initiative, suggesting that it is the woman who thus sets the limits to a greater extent than men do.
"The longer the relationship had lasted, the less often the couples had sex. And one other factor in particular reduces the frequency.
"Love is a commitment mechanism, and there is less passion and desire in a relationship if a partner is more interested in others.
Women who tend to be more open to casual sexual relationships differentiate between positive, physical aspects of sex and relational and emotional aspects of a relationship to a greater extent.
The most remarkable finding is perhaps that it's only the woman's attitudes to casual sex that affect the frequency of sexual intercourse
https://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2019-05/nuos-ptl051319.php
Previous studies have also compared the habituation and reinstatement of sexual arousal in men and women. Surprisingly Both, Laan and Everaerd (2011) found only a reduction in women’s genital responses. However, other studies found both men and women’s physiological arousal to decline significantly
Studies have also found that women near ovulation experience agreater desire to engage in short-term relationships with Cads, yet the majority of studies overlook factors related to women’s menstrual cycle Gangestad, Garver-Apgar, Simpson & Cousins, 2007; Gangestad, Simpson, Cousins, Garver-Apgar & Christensen, 2004; Gangestad, Thornhill & Garver-Apgar, 2010; Durante, Griskevicius, Simpson, Cantú & Li, 2012)
In fact some women felt certain that their desire would return in response to a new partner (Sims & Meana, 2010).
some women who reported a reduction in sexual desire towards their partner, continued to experience strong sexual desire towards other men(Durr, 2009; Murray et al., 2012)
In the final model predicting sexual desire, only frequency of sexual activity and variety of sexual activity were significant predictors; the impact of relationship duration was no longer significant. Therefore, the variety of sexual activity in which a couple engages,and the frequency with which they engage in sexual activity, may have a greater impact on female sexual desire than the length of the couple’s relationship. This suggests that the frequently reported declines in women’s sexual desire(Hayes et al., 2008; Murray& Milhausen, 2012; Klusmann, 2002)
which havefound women’s sexual satisfact ionto decline with relationship duration (Cheung et al., 2008; Klusmann, 2002; Liu, 2003; Schmiedeberg & Schroder, 2015; Sprecher, 2002).
-
Women's number of EPC partners was significantly predicted by both attachment variables. Their anxious attachment positively predicted their number of EPC partners, beta .20, (161) - 2.60, p < .01. Their avoidant attachment negatively predicted their number of EPC partners, beta — 2.69, p < .01
http://www.csun.edu/~skang/LR/Summary3.pdf
More anxiously attached women were particularly likely to report extrapair fantasies, whereas more anxiously attached men were especially likely to report romantic fantasies.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1475-6811.2007.00157.x
among women, attachment anxiety is associated with unrestricted and risky sexual behaviors. For example, anxiously attached women are inclined to engage in extrapair sex (Bogaert & Sadava, 2002; Gangestad & Thornhill, 1997), as well as in unprotected and consensual unwanted sex (e.g., Feeney & Noller, 2004; Impett & Pep-lau, 2002). Expectedly, they also report higher rates of unplanned preg-nancy than less anxiously attached women do (Cooper, Shapiro, & Powers, 1998).
https://www.academia.edu/17375003/On_the_convergence_of_sexual_urges_and_emotional_bonds_The_interplay_of_the_sexual_and_attachment_systems_during_relationship_development
In humans, in contrast to animals, the genetic influences on infidelity are unclear. We report here a large study of over 1600 unselected United Kingdom female twin pairs who confidentially reported previous episodes of infidelity and total lifetime number of sexual partners, as well as attitudes towards infidelity. Our findings demonstrate that infidelity and number of sexual partners are both under moderate genetic influence (41% and 38% heritable, respectively) and the genetic correlation between these two traits is strong (47%). Conversely, attitudes towards infidelity are driven by shared and unique environmental, but not genetic, influences. A genome-wide linkage scan identified three suggestive but nonsignificant linkage areas associated with infidelity and number of sexual partners on chromosomes 3, 7 and 20 with a maximum LOD score of 2.46.
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/twin-research-and-human-genetics/article/genetic-influences-on-female-infidelity-and-number-of-sexual-partners-in-humans-a-linkage-and-association-study-of-the-role-of-the-vasopressin-receptor-gene-avpr1a/CD90C401AB01263A4205D6E926A914F8
mothers who carried the long allele of AVPR1a and/or of DRD4 were more likely to focus on their own needs and endorse negative cognitions about their infants during distressing tasks. Maternal AVPR1a and DRD4 “risk” genotypes were linked with mothers’ heightened focus on their own needs, which in turn predicted lower sensitivity to infant distress.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5290085/
The male sex-hormone testosterone might play a role in moral reasoning as males are more utilitarian than females in their moral decisions, and high salivary testosterone levels also are associated with utilitarian moral decisions.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0306453012004131
Compared to men, women had significantly higher 5-HT1A receptor and lower 5-HTT binding potentials in a wide array of cortical and subcortical brain regions.
According to these lines of observations, lower synaptic serotonin levels in women could relate to the lower 5-HTT and higher 5-HT1A availability found in the present study. Contrarily in men, the higher rates of serotonin synthesis might coincide with higher levels of synaptic serotonin. Higher functional demands in terms of higher reuptake capacity to adjust for relatively higher serotonin synaptic levels might contribute to a higher 5-HTT density in men. Similarly, higher availability of synaptic serotonin can be a mechanism for reduction in expression levels of 5-HT1A receptors
https://dept.wofford.edu/neuroscience/NeuroSeminar/pdfSpring2009/Jovanovic_2008_NeuroImage.pdf
>Hristina Jovanovic at the end of February [of 2008], show that women have a greater number of the most common serotonin receptors than men.
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/02/080213111043.htm
The average thickness of a male skull was 0.25 inches (6.5 millimeters), while the average thickness of a female skull was 0.28 inches (7.1 millimeters). While a thicker skull provides more protection in a head injury, skull shape is also a factor. It will take more research to determine which feature is more important, the researchers said.
https://www.livescience.com/2249-women-thick-headed-men.html
women have nearly 10 times the amount of white matter related to intelligence than men. Gray matter represents information processing centers in the brain, and white matter represents the networking of – or connections between – these processing centers.
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/01/050121100142.htm
Liars showed a 22-26% increase in prefrontal white matter and a 36-42% reduction in prefrontal grey/white ratios compared with both antisocial controls and normal controls.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16199789/
a trend towards lower white matter volume was found in the superior frontal cortices for liars (F(2, 41)=0.42, P=0.66). Liars showed significantly increased white matter in inferior, middle and orbitofrontal cortex compared with both antisocial controls (P=0.001, P=0.004, and P=0.006, respectively) and normal controls (P=0.001, P=0.005, and P=0.001 respectively; Fig. 1). No difference was found for gray matter volume in the four subregions (F(8, 78) =0.54, P=0.82).
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2376803/
This finding suggests, says Fields, that mu receptors in females also respond differently to mu opioids than they do in males. The ultimate explanation for the sexual dimorphism with respect to the mu and kappa-opioid receptors may prove to be hormonal, says Fields.
But regardless of the explanation, he says, “People need to understand that male and female brains are different, period. And this fact as to be taken into consideration when thinking about drug treatments, particularly drugs that
act on the central nervous system.”
https://www.ucsf.edu/news/2000/03/97471/pain-drug-reveals-what-most-already-know-mens-and-womens-brains-are-simply
it is important to remember that psychological factors influence the response to opioid-based therapy. Anxiety and sympathetic reactivity [as seen more in male patients] imposes a major negative influence in pain perception and brain activity and may influence opioid analgesia among the sexes
https://www.practicalpainmanagement.com/pain/gender-pain-experience
"Pain is inherently subjective," says Jennifer Graham. "We typically rely on self-report to know if someone is experiencing it." And it's tough to determine how much of pain is sensory and how much is influenced by psychological factors, she adds. "The limbic system of the brain, which is related to emotion, is typically active in response to physical pain for both men and women. In fact, looking at functional MRI, it can be difficult to distinguish psychological pain-such as that caused by social exclusion-from pain that is purely physical."
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2003/11/031105064626.htm
Male microchimerism was found in 21% of women overall. Healthy women and women with RA did not significantly differ (24% vs 18%). Results ranged from the DNA equivalent of 0 to 20.7 male cells per 100000 female cells. Women were categorized into 4 groups according to pregnancy history. Group A had only daughters (n = 26), Group B had spontaneous abortions (n = 23), Group C had induced abortions (n = 23), and Group D were nulligravid (n = 48). Male microchimerism prevalence was significantly greater in Group C than other groups (8%, 22%, 57%, 10%, respectively). Levels were also significantly higher in the induced abortion group.
Male microchimerism was not infrequent in women without sons.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16084184/
one of the possible functions of dsRNA in human seminal plasma may be to influence human oocytes and therefore, influence the offspring. It also remains possible that these dsRNAs might have potential use as biomarkers for the study of human physiopathological conditions and genetic variation.
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fgene.2017.00154/full
We report that 63% of the females (37 of 59) tested harbored male microchimerism in the brain. Male microchimerism was present in multiple brain regions. Results also suggested lower prevalence (p = 0.03) and concentration (p = 0.06) of male microchimerism in the brains of women with Alzheimer’s disease than the brains of women without neurologic disease. In conclusion, male microchimerism is frequent and widely distributed in the human female brain.
https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0045592
Even if there were no intrinsic sex differences in empathy levels, women might tend to assume that they are expected to portray themselves as highly empathetic, thus favoring a widespread gender stereotype.
https://ri.conicet.gov.ar/bitstream/handle/11336/48492/CONICET_Digital_Nro.2ff2b665-b4b4-423d-a8a8-2a8f5ca435ed_A.pdf?sequence=2/